Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1

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Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4266316/v1

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This research determined the annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE) and excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) resulting from background ionizing radiation (BIR) within the vicinity of the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites in West Pokot, Kenya. The study employed a portable hand-held Thermo Scientific RADEYE PRD Personal Radiation Detector for data collection. Measurements of the ADR in air were conducted at thirty-two distinct locations within the sites and their surroundings, each positioned 1.0 meters above ground level. The recorded ADRs ranged from 66 to 155 nGy h^− 1 within the sites, with an average of 106 ± 22 nGy h^− 1. These readings were above the global average value of 60 nGy h^− 1. The AEDE ranged from 0.08 to 0.19 mSv, with a mean of 0.13 ± 0.03 mSv/yr, which is below the threshold limit of 1 mSv/yr. The excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) ranged from 0.28x10^− 3 to 0.67x10^− 3, with an average of 0.46 ± 0.10. These values surpass the recommended limit value of 0.299×10^− 3. While the AEDE values were compliant with international recommendations of 1 mSv/y, the ELCR values surpassed the average recommended limit. This suggests that artisanal gold mining sites pose no immediate radiological health hazards due to the absorbed dose from the BIR, yet the risk of cancer development over a lifetime of exposure remains considerably high. Thus, routine monitoring of the BIR and radioactivity concentration in soil and rocks and minimizing prolonged exposure are recommended to ensure the safety of workers and residents.

Background ionizing radiation (BIR)

Gold mining

Annual effective dose equivalent (AEDE)

Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR)

and Absorbed dose rate (ADR)

Our environment is constantly exposed to radiation from both natural and human-made sources. The natural background ionizing radiation is produced by cosmic rays and naturally occurring radioactive elements in the Earth's crust, including within living organisms (Adebiyi et al., 2021; Jwanbot et al., 2013; UNSCEAR, 2000). Radionuclides such as ⁴⁰K and those produced during the decay of ²³⁸U and ²³²Th significantly contribute to human exposure, with concentrations varying in soil and rocks due to geological factors (Akortia et al., 2021; Azeem et al., 2023). In addition to natural sources, human activities such as nuclear reactors, medical procedures, industry, and research introduce radiation into the environment (Adebiyi et al., 2021; Hu et al., 2010). Globally, humans receive an average dose of approximately 80% from natural sources and 20% from human-made sources (Ademola et al., 2014; Marciniak et al., 2022; Masok et al., 2015). Geological conditions affect radiation emissions, with higher levels found in igneous rocks such as granite and lower levels in sedimentary rocks, except for shale and phosphate rocks (Sanjurjo-Sánchez & Alves, 2017). The increased global focus on evaluating radiation levels and their environmental impacts stems from recognizing the harmful effects of ionizing radiation on biological tissues. Understanding these levels is crucial due to the damaging consequences of high-energy ionizing radiation interacting with biological matter, causing ionization, and releasing charged particles and free radicals that damage cellular structures. This damage extends to DNA, resulting in base damage, sugar damage, single-strand breaks (SSBs), double-strand breaks (DSBs), and DNA‒protein cross-links (Collins & Azqueta, 2014; Islam, 2017). DNA damage contributes to gene mutation, chromosomal anomalies, cell death, mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis, often leading to chronic diseases and various types of cancer (Avwiri et al., 2017; Chatzipapas et al., 2023; Kaur et al., 2019; Qureshi et al., 2014). Considering these health implications, cancer remains a significant adverse outcome associated with ionizing radiation exposure, highlighting the need for a thorough investigation and mitigation of potential environmental consequences that address ecological and health concerns. The Ortum and Muruny River regions are rich in gold mineral deposits, leading to extensive mining activities. These operations involve excavating and crushing rocks and alluvial ores associated with gold mineral deposits, redistributing radionuclides into the environment and increasing radiation dose levels. Excavation and crushing release radionuclides and dust particles, contributing to heightened radiation levels in the vicinity (Adebayo et al., 2022; Ogundele et al., 2021; Thomson, 2021). Given that human activities increase radionuclide content and radiation levels, it is crucial to monitor and evaluate radiation levels to maintain exposure as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA principle) (Charles, 2007; Kuzmanović et al., 2023). In recent years, studies have been conducted to investigate human exposure to background radiation, examining natural radioactivity levels and background radiation exposure in various soil types, including surface soil, agricultural and farm soil (Azeem et al., 2023; El-Gamal et al., 2019), gold mining soil (Ogundele et al., 2021), quarry soil (Ofomola et al., 2023), environmental soil (Raja & Neelakantan, 2022), and uncultivated soil (Csordás et al., 2023), across different global regions. However, there is a significant research gap regarding radiation assessment within and around the mining sites in Ortum and the Muruny River in West Pokot. To address this gap, this study conducted the initial investigation in the region, with the primary objective of evaluating and measuring the absorbed dose rate of background radiation in the air. The measured dose rate is used to calculate the annual AEDE experienced by individuals near the site, including miners and the general public. Additionally, the study assessed the ELCR associated with this background radiation exposure. The findings were compared against established recommended standards to determine the radiological health implications. Furthermore, this research will be used to establish a radiation baseline for the region, as no prior radiological studies have been conducted in the area. The pictures show mining activities taking place at the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mines, West Pokot Fig. 1.

Study Sites

The research study area is located in Ortum and the Muruny River in West Pokot, Kenya. It is between the Mtelo and Cheranganyi Hills in the Pokot South subcounty. The study area covers a total of approximately 20 km² between longitudes 35°22'08" to 35°27'11" east and latitudes 1°27'37" to 1°32'01" north Fig. 2. It has a population of approximately 3,000people and an altitude ranging from 1360 to 1420 m. The climate is characterized as savanna, with average temperatures ranging from 21°C to 31°C. The eastern part of the study area is composed of intrusive and volcanic rocks, which cover the Ortum and Muruny River artisanal gold mining areas. The middle section consists of sedimentary rocks, while the western part is primarily defined by arenite, limestone, weathering rocks, and intermittent granite intrusion formations in the north and south.

In this study, a portable hand-held Thermo Scientific RADEYE PRD Personal Radiation Detector was used to measure the absorbed gamma radiation field equivalent dose rate in nGy h^− 1 around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites in situ. The Geiger counter serves as a personal dosimeter designed for detecting and measuring radiation levels in outdoor environments, homes, and workplaces. It is capable of determining the equivalent dosage rate and the specific radioactivity of caesium-137, β-particles, γ-rays, and X-rays; this device operates by registering electrical pulses triggered by radiation passing through a Geiger tube. These pulses are then recorded as counts by the CPU. A total of thirty-two measurements were taken from various locations, with GPS readings recorded at each point around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining area to assess background radiation at 1 m above ground level. The detector window was directed at specified target areas during these measurements. To ensure accuracy, three measurements were taken at each point, three minutes apart. The average absorbed dose rate (ADR) was then calculated in nGy h^− 1. This selection of measurement points aimed to evenly cover the entire study area.

The ADR value was essential for calculating the annual effective dose equivalent AEDE in µSv y^− 1 for both miners and the general public using a specific equation.

$$AEDE\left(Outdoor\right)\left(\mu Sv y־¹\right)=D\left(nGyh־¹\right)\times T\times Q\times OF\times 10{־}^{3}$$

where T is the time in hours per year (8760), Q is the 0.7 SvG y^− 1 conversion factor, and OF is the occupancy factor of 0.2 (Ogundele et al., 2021), which relates to the human effective dose acquired by miners to the absorption rate at mining sites. The AEDE recommended limit is 1 mSv/yr.

The ability of radiation to cause cancer in the human body over a specific limit of exposure for a given length of time, based on an average human lifetime of 70 years, is known as an ELCR. Using AEDE values, the ELCR was determined using the following equation:

$$ELCR=\left(DL\right)\left(AEDE\right)\left(RF\right)$$

where RF is the risk factor (Sv^− 1), DL is computed using the mean length of life (70 years), which is the fatal cancer risk per Sievert, and AEDE refers to the annual effective dose equivalent. ICRP reports proposed an RF of 0.050 when public stochastic effects are utilized from low dose rates from background radiation (Ofomola et al., 2023).

The measured values of the BIR, AEDE, and ELCR along with the corresponding coordinates of the measured area are presented in Table 1. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the measured absorbed dose rates around the Ortum and Muruny River artisanal gold mining areas Fig. 2. The background radiation dose rates in the study area varied from 66.9 ± 6.2 nGy h^− 1 to 155 ± 20.1 nGy h^− 1, with a mean value of 106 ± 22 nGy h^− 1. Despite being above the recommended safe limit of 60 nGy h^− 1, (Shehzad et al., 2019), the calculated AEDE values were below the limit of 1 mSv/yr for all sites. The AEDE values ranged from 0.08 mSv to 0.19 mSv, with a mean of 0.13 ± 0.03 mSv/yr. These findings suggest a consistent trend in background radiation exposure in the sampled areas, attributed mainly to gamma radiation from geological features, radon, and cosmic rays (Joel et al., 2021; Ravisankar et al., 2016). The variation in radionuclide concentrations in soil and rocks, specifically (²³⁸U, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K), along with altitude, contributes to these exposure levels exceeding global averages for the background exposure dose rate. The measured ADRs slightly surpassed the global average of 60 nGy h^− 1, but the computed mean AEDE values of 0.13 ± 0.03 mSv/yr for the mining sites remained below the recommended limits of 1 mSv/yr. Figure 3 illustrates this compliance with permissible limits of 1.00 mSv/yr for the general public and 20.00 mSv/yr for occupational workers (ICRP) (2007).

The manifestation of cancer resulting from exposure to ionizing radiation does not manifest immediately; rather, its development is a gradual process that may last several years. According to (Ainsbury et al., 2023; Seibold et al., 2020), after radiation exposure, various cancer types may emerge, albeit with varying frequencies, requiring detection through epidemiological methods. The interval between radiation exposure and the identification of cancer is termed the latent period, and this period can extend over numerous years. In the majority of cases, cancer becomes apparent only in individuals who have reached an advanced age. The concept of ELCR is thus defined as the likelihood that an individual will experience cancer throughout their lifetime as a consequence of radiation exposure (Sridharan et al., 2016).

The average ELCR due to background radiation exposure ranged from 0.28x10^− 3 to 0.67x10^− 3, with an average of 0.46 ± 0.10 (Table 1). The values surpass the recommended limit value of 0.299×10^− 3 (300 persons per 1 million population) (Avwiri et al., 2017; UNSCEAR, 2008), indicating a notably elevated probability of developing cancer over a lifetime within the artisanal gold mining environment Fig. 4. Approximately 94% of the measured points exceeded the recommended limits, representing a substantial increase in cancer cases, which is detectable only through epidemiological studies. The lifetime cancer risk due to gamma radiation exposure in Muzaffarabad, the state capital of Pakistan, was assessed. The annual effective dosage resulting from radon exposure ranged between 0.4 and 3.78 mSv/yr for indoor measurements, with a mean of 1.18 mSv/yr. The corresponding calculated ELCR varied between 1.49x10^− 3 and 14.01x10^− 3, with an average value of 4.38x10^− 3 (Rafique et al., 2021). The results of the exposure dose rate in this research are far greater than the results estimated in this investigation.

Table 1

The calculated ADRs, AEDEs and ELCRs around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites
Sampling Points	Latitude	Longitude	BIR (nGy/h)	AEDE (mSv/yr)	ELCR
OR1	1.465742	35.370481	89.3 ± 14.0	0.11	0.39
OR2	1.467617	35.371874	96.1 ± 4.2	0.12	0.42
OR3	1.466224	35.369739	78.8 ± 10.1	0.10	0.35
OR4	1.465789	35.369714	112 ± 8	0.14	0.49
OR5	1.463916	35.370744	103 ± 5	0.13	0.46
OR6	1.463446	35.370375	97.4 ± 5.4	0.12	0.42
OR7	1.470406	35.373212	100 ± 7	0.12	0.42
OR8	1.462738	35.369976	95.4 ± 8.5	0.12	0.42
OR9	1.461973	35.368365	89.2 ± 11.5	0.11	0.39
OR10	1.466759	35.371024	126 ± 10	0.15	0.53
OR11	1.466464	35.372246	155 ± 1	0.19	0.67
OR12	1.471197	35.373001	134 ± 11	0.16	0.56
OR13	1.473406	35.372718	113 ± 10	0.14	0.49
OR14	1.476493	35.374381	99.6 ± 10.1	0.12	0.42
OR15	1.455694	35.366144	68.6 ± 8.0	0.08	0.28
RM16	1.531431	35.445249	79.3 ± 9.1	0.10	0.35
RM17	1.530554	35.450515	66.9 ± 3.2	0.08	0.28
RM18	1.531261	35.448526	119 ± 9	0.15	0.53
RM19	1.532592	35.447013	106 ± 6	0.13	0.46
RM20	1.533046	35.452786	134 ± 11	0.16	0.56
RM21	1.533435	35.452995	129 ± 8	0.16	0.56
RM22	1.532039	35.446078	114 ± 8	0.14	0.49
RM23	1.529771	35.444256	99.1 ± 9.2	0.12	0.42
RM24	1.536355	35.464646	101 ± 8	0.12	0.42
RM25	1.531567	35.462227	88.2 ± 9.5	0.11	0.39
RM26	1.535228	35.451392	92.3 ± 4.5	0.11	0.39
RM27	1.530801	35.417655	78.7 ± 5.3	0.10	0.35
RM28	1.529876	35.420365	136 ± 13	0.17	0.60
RM29	1.531612	35.415229	145 ± 12	0.18	0.63
RM30	1.515456	35.409538	131 ± 8	0.16	0.56
RM31	1.496562	35.401901	122 ± 11	0.15	0.53
RM32	1.483003	35.382558	111 ± 10	0.14	0.49
Mean ± SD			106 ± 22	0.13 ± 0.03	0.46 ± 0.10
MAX			155	0.19	0.665
MIN			66	0.08	0.28

This study assessed the annual effective dose and ELCR from background radiation within and around the Ortum and River Muruny artisanal gold mining sites to establish baseline data for these locations. A total of 32 measurements were taken at 1 m above the ground at various locations. The average absorbed dose of 82.9 ± 13.9 nGy h^− 1 was greater than the global mean of 60 nGy h^− 1. The mean AEDE value was 0.32 ± 0.04 mSv/yr, which is slightly lower than the global average of 1 mSv/yr. The calculated mean AEDE values remain within permissible limits of 1 mSv/yr. However, the average ELCR of 0.46 ± 0.10 slightly exceeds the standard limit of 0.299×10^− 3, likely due to enhanced radionuclide concentrations resulting from excavation activities. While the immediate radiological health effects of absorbed doses appear manageable, the probability of cancer developing over a lifetime within artisanal gold mining areas is greater. As a recommendation, regular background radiation monitoring, assessment of radionuclide concentrations in soil and rocks, and careful management of exposure are advised by local authorities, mining management, and interested researchers. Additionally, the working hours of exposure for miners and the public should be minimized.

Funding Declaration

This research received no funding

Competing Interest declaration

The authors declare no competing interests

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Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk Due to Natural Background Radiation Levels in West Pokot, Kenya

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