Ethnobotanical study on traditional use of local fruit varieties in 1 Gargano National Park (Apulia, Italy). 2

. This study is a first attempt at documenting the ethnobotanical value of local fruit trees, the quantity of 10 which has been decreasing along the past fifty years, while the cultivation has gradually been abandoned. The 11 current study focuses on Gargano Promontory area, where some traditional agriculture practices are still in use. 12 Many species and ethnobotanical categories are involved in a range of uses, such as domestic and craft products (22 13 species), agroforestry (16 species), and economic (13 species), not to say for food. In these cases, either fruits (62%), 14 and other parts (leaves, flowers seeds, remnants of pruning, lumber) of a plant are important (38%). 217 fruit trees 15 are involved (local varieties, ancient cultivars, accessions) and they belong to 33 species, mainly Rosaceae’s (53%). 16 Chestnut, pear, almond and walnut trees are most widely exploited, proving that an ethnobotanical heritage of great 17 importance has developed thanks to the diversity of traditional fruit trees, whose relevance is far from being 18 completely studied. In Gargano area case, the variety of traditional fruit trees has become a strong distinctive feature 19 of the Mediterranean diet. This is in turn still the base of the nutritional regime of a community that developed a 20 sound gastronomic knowledge based on fruits (salads, first courses, etc.).


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Many species and ethnobotanical categories are involved in a range of uses, such as domestic and craft products (22 13 species), agroforestry (16 species), and economic (13 species), not to say for food. In these cases, either fruits (62%), 14 and other parts (leaves, flowers seeds, remnants of pruning, lumber) of a plant are important (38%). 217 fruit trees 15 are involved (local varieties, ancient cultivars, accessions) and they belong to 33 species, mainly Rosaceae's (53%).

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Chestnut, pear, almond and walnut trees are most widely exploited, proving that an ethnobotanical heritage of great 17 importance has developed thanks to the diversity of traditional fruit trees, whose relevance is far from being 18 completely studied. In Gargano area case, the variety of traditional fruit trees has become a strong distinctive feature 19 of the Mediterranean diet. This is in turn still the base of the nutritional regime of a community that developed a 20 sound gastronomic knowledge based on fruits (salads, first courses, etc.). The socio-economic changes of the past 21 fifty years have obviously led to abandoning most of said uses. The interest in foodstuff remains, but it is limited to 22 few species, or to an even lower number of their morphotypes. In intercultural comparisons with other Italian regions 23 (Campania, Basilicata) and other countries (Serbia), we have found common uses, but above all a great uniqueness. For the first time in Italy, this ethnobotanical study focuses on the variety of local fruit trees ("ancient fruits"), and 32 the area considered is Gargano Promontory in Apulia (Italy). Its biodiversity heritage has been affected for many 33 years now by a relentless loss of consistency, due to the changes in agricultural production models that in Italy have 34 involved the lowlands, and that have left abandoned hill and mountain agriculture (Piccinin, 2000).  These first scientific attempts are undoubtedly important; nonetheless, they can only offer a partial representation of 55 the ancient fruits that spread locally in Italy, their diffusion being at the same time the factor that provoked their 56 decline. On the other hand, the ancient fruits are getting a clearly increasing interest from the social sphere: websites, 57 Facebook pages, informal research, rediscovery of 'lost flavours', continuity of traditions (Angelini, 2005). Last, 58 3 ancient fruits have a place of their own in several market niches, such as among gastronauts and foodtrotters, in 59 haute cuisine, etc. 60 There were so many ancient fruits that no one has ever been aware of the actual extent of their presence. With 61 regards to the Gargano area, a rough figure can be obtained by examining the old agriculture censuses (ISTAT, 1971) 62 still including the data about the mixed farming that used to focus mainly on the so-called "seminativi arborati" (tree 63 crops). When in 1971 the abandonment phenomenon (rural exodus) was already significant, in Gargano area 1,855 64 hectares (3.4% of the cultivated land) were still fruit trees' -more than half of them almond groves, and around 480 65 hectares were specialized arboriculture's (citrus trees). If we consider just the tree crops and exclude the almond 66 groves, there probably were around 120,000 trees (plant layout 8x8): fig trees,  probably used in typical mixed cultivation with vineyards, citrus groves and above all olive orchards. During the past 71 fifty years every opportunity of evaluating the cultivation extent of these fruits has disappeared; we can only note its 72 steady and relentless abandonment: based on our current observations, in Gargano area it is probably around 80%.

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Nevertheless, even though today Gargano territory is characterized by a strong tourism development, some 74 interesting experiences, and the knowledge of traditional uses of these fruits are surviving, and they remain linked to 75 few residual mixed cultivations. These have in turn helped to preserve meaningful evidence of ancient fruits, though 76 they very close to the point of extinction.

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In many cases, they are old cultivars passed down to the present, with names that can be found in classical botanists 78 and pomologists' works (Mattioli, 1544

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The ethnobotanical data come from structured interviews with farmers (average age: 80 years), realized over the last 102 ten years (2010-2020). The research has covered the whole Gargano area and has been complemented by photos and 103 videos. The fruit trees studied are the same described in previous works, some already published (Angelicchio et al., 104 1993;Biscotti, 2001Biscotti, , 2008Biscotti, , 2010Biscotti, , 2013; during the last years, most of the mother plants (44 accessions belonging to 105 10 species) have been geo-referenced and stored at Centro di Ricerca, Sperimentazione e Formazione in Agricoltura 106 "Basile Caramia" in Locorotondo (Ba).

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-Local name: in case of forgotten names, we have used a name attributed by us (e.g. "Mela di Valle 110 Sgadea") that links it to the toponym of the place where it has been found; the acronym 'CRSFA' shows an 111 accession characterized and conserved in the above mentioned 'Centro Ricerca e Sperimentazione di 112 Locorotondo' (Ba). In the same column, 'photo' means that in the additional file there is a photo (Fig.S1).

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-Pomology/size/ripening period: these details are used for ancient cultivars, local varieties or accessions 114 characterized and conserved; the same column also gives information about fruit size (little, medium, 115 large), and ripening period.

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-Discovery territory: this definition is used for the Gargano municipality to which the fruit tree is linked.

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-Methods of use/Uses: they are divided by category of use.

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-Level of use (according to Biscotti and Pieroni, 2015) 123 -Taste appreciation: for food use.
124 Table 1's dataset has been created using Windows Office programs, to realize histograms and pie charts.

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The other four tables list the results of different processing carried out on the data: Table 2 Table 1. 133 134

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The research gathered an amount of meaningful data under the botanical and pomological aspect. Figure

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Overall, the documented uses can be divided in 7 ethnobotanical categories (listed per species in Table 2); they make 145 clear that every fruit is used in a variety of ways apart from food: domestic/crafts (22 species), agroforestry (16 6 species), and economic (13 species). In fact, only very few species have limited uses (frequency 1, 2, 3). Chestnut, 147 pear, almond and walnut are the species with more categories of use (frequency 5). Table 2 also reveals the 148 significant economic role of these fruits' many morphotypes for pear, pomegranate, cherry, orange, hazel, walnut, 149 almond and above all chestnut. 150 Charts in Figure 2 show the fruits' ripening period (Chart A), and their distribution in Gargano Promontory's 151 territories. In the first case, the fruits' wide availability almost over the whole year (at its top in August -27%) is 152 clearly shown; though, spring and autumn months are important too, as local fruits are mainly available from May to 153 November, while from January to April Gargano area's communities enjoy citruses (Others, 7%). In the second case 154 (Chart B), we can see that almost every Gargano municipality is involved in growing and using these fruits, even 155 though said municipalities are mainly grouped in a northern zone of the Promontory whose borders are Vico del 156 Gargano (23%), Ischitella (19%), and Rodi Garganico (11%).

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As shown in Figure 3, the recorded ethnobotanical uses concern mainly fruits (62%), but the whole tree is 158 particularly important, since every part is used, i.e., seeds, leaves (14%), pruning remnants (14%), and wood (3%).  Other fruits with a high nutritional relevance are plums (Sino-Japanese plum), and damsons (European plum), 176 respectively called "pironi" and "passole" (or "pernelle"). Also, the dietary value of dried fruits such as walnuts, 177 hazels, and chestnuts (but above all of almonds) is high. Still now, many Christmas cakes contain almonds: they are

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The DART and ASP charts of Figure 4 show the processing of a tree's other parts: in the first one we can observe the 214 domestic/crafts uses, where almond, cherry, and apricot trees' pruning remnants are particularly important (82%) as 215 firewood, and to cook food (roasts and soups). The remaining part concerns some interesting uses of walnut trees' 216 wood (for carpentry), medlars and bitter orange trees' (to realize work tools' handles), olive trees' suckers to make 217 braided objects, mulberry trees to make swings, and finally vines of table grapes ("Uva pergola") to make pergolas.

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The second chart (ASP) lists the agroforestry uses, among which using leaves to feed the livestock (rabbits, goats, 219 donkeys, mules) is the prevalent one, even though it is also meaningful the use of seeds of some fruit trees (peach, 220 apricot, medlar trees) to reproduce plants and get rootstocks.

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The worst expected results concern all the remaining categories; playing (L) with fruits (walnuts) is a completely

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The abundance of data collected in Gargano area clearly shows that local fruits are proof of a wide ethnobotanical 400 tradition, developed from the importance they already had with regards to the nutritional aspect. Such tradition is 401 based on species' diversity, and above all, on infraspecific diversity as a unique adaptation requirement to the 402 bioclimatic and morphological diversity of territories. Diversity represented a winning strategy to ensure availability 403 of fruitsas in Gargano casealmost all year long, given that fruits ripe in every season. Eating fruits (bread and 404 cherries, or bread and grapes) used to be a habit during breaks from work in the countryside, or a snack to enjoy at 405 any time. Nuts too (walnuts, hazels, almonds, chestnuts) used to enrich the festive tables. In winter, Gargano 406 communities also enjoyed citruses, a daily reserve of vitamin C available for many months. These fruits have had a 407 very wide consumption, so that their value has gone far beyond the common idea of "fruits", since they have often 408 changed into true food, helpful in facing famine, therefore they were stored (dried, baked, preserved) during the long 409 and occasionally cold Mediterranean winter. Given what has been said so far, the nutritional use of local fruits shows 410 the knowledge local communities relied upon, hence acknowledging the 'food supremacy' (Nyélèni Forum, 2007) 411 that supports safe and fair local food of high quality, and that protects a community's right to keep its own eating  (Etkin, 1996;Pieroni, 2000). Once properly processed, fruits used to change into medical  (Brazanti Sansavini, 1964) focuses on pear production in Apulia and 464 estimates for Foggia province 170,000 quintals (76% regional production); 98% was of local varieties (82% on a 465 regional level). The monograph mentions the local varieties called "Mela Rosa, Perelle di maggio (Puredde), Pero 466 Marchese, Pero Ciccantonio, Mezzorotolo, Muzzaduro, Ustinella, Rignanese" -all of them rooted in Gargano area's 467 pear cultivation, and "whose very early production… is appreciated not only in local markets, but also in some 468 national ones". Many of the kinds of cultivated pears come from Ischitella zone. It is a rich germplasm issued from 469 'semi-specialized' models, so to say (arable land mixed with pears, pear/olive mixed cultivation), that the mixed 470 farming pattern created with pear trees.

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Nuts too (especially chestnuts -once they were sold even in Avellino general markets -and almonds) had a 472 commercial/economic value. Until 1960s, almonds harvest was a big income source for farmers in Gargano (San 473 Giovanni Rotondo, Monte Sant'Angelo), thanks to a heritage of 50 varieties (Fanelli, 1939). Since decades, such 474 products have unfortunately lost every commercial value, and their harvest has been abandoned. The trade interests 475 17 have been changing, and the sweet industry (especially confectionery) looks for unique seed's fruits, shelled, 476 immediately available and low-cost, coming from intensive cultivation of the almonds (mechanization of the harvest 477 and shelling). The uncountable Gargano almonds' morphotypes have on the contrary hard shells, often containing 478 two seeds (a characteristic farmers were interested in). On the other hand, softer, thinner shells expose almonds to 479 fungi only phytopharmaceuticals can face, a problem many Gargano cultivars did not have.

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The economic value of Gargano's traditional fruit-growing reaches its peak thanks to the citruses (only 500 or 600 481 hectares) grown in 'I Giardini' that rely on a stream (Torrente Asciatizzo) fuelled by several sources (Angelicchio et

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The variety of citruses (whose centuries-old trees still can be seen) range from morphotypes of sweet orange, to 501 lemon (the most cultivated ones), to bitter orange, cedar, bergamot, and chinotto, e.g., a valuable proof of rural

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The use of these fruit trees portrays a very interesting anthropological dimension, since they are linked to single 525 farmers that have learnt not only how to grow them, but also how to create a wider know-how all around them. They 526 are all issued from the establishment of some characteristics following very long selection processes within every 527 species. They exist because someone has chosen, grown, protected, and passed on them over the time, so the specific 528 knowledge of every farmer is crucial.

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The aspect offering conclusive elements for a discussion focuses on the social and cultural role of local fruit trees: 530 they are the collective heritage of the communities, that preserve their memory and pass it on; starting from the plays 531 made with fruits, they have marked the meeting point of a place and a culture. Besides, fruit trees have a long history 532 in common with people, that through them preserve life witness, work, techniques -an authentic immaterial culture 533 bond to food, to its production and processing. Every fruit has taken on a really important place in the intellectual, 534 symbolic, magic, and social universe. Trees have offered shade and refreshment, they have marked borders, 535 19 sheltered birds, supported other plants, they keep on supplying firewood, anduntil some decades agothey were 536 mainly used to have wood to cook food. Fruit trees wood is an excellent fuel, because -as 'hard wood' -it burns 537 slowly, makes little smoke, and releases aromas that gives the food a unique taste. Thanks to the fruit trees' pruning 538 remnants, the peasants and their families had enough wood stocks to face the winter.

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Fruit trees' social value can be seen in pears, that in Gargano area have always been considered a water source. In 540 summer in Gargano area, no other fruit can relieve thirst like the many pear varieties -everyone's property -we can 541 find along the roads and the paths, almost always born from grafts on wild pears from July to October. Same role 542 have figs (extremely rich in sugar), available to everyone along the roads, ready to satisfy the hunger that some old 543 people still remembers from the past. The poor and those who were hungry used to be given a handful of dried pears, 544 or carobs, figs, plums or 'infornate' -a present for children too. The rich enjoyed the fruits of ''Pero dei signori'' 545 (the rich's pear tree), or ''Pero marchese'', whose gradual ripening (July to October) made it a tree only the rich 546 could afford to grow, enabling its owner to eat a fruit a day for a long period. Fruit is a child's happiness, particularly 547 when it comes to mulberries, cherries, medlars, apricots, grapes, strawberries: the harvest used to be a feast enjoyed 548 by several generations (grandparents, relatives, children) that gathered and used to share tastes, colours, shapes and 549 above all abundance of food.

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It is from these traditions that some of the typical excellent Apulian sweets (dried fig, fig with almonds

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In comparison with other realities out of Italy, and focusing on few species, it results that -in Gargano area and in 569 Polimlje region -the morphologic and pomological characteristics and the ripening period are crucial for use 570 modalities, that can anyway change according to a territory, due to ethnic, cultural and environmental reasons. consumption. Morphotypes determine the processing to choose, and its economic value. The interesting fact is that 577 every morphotype has played a role within a community's social, economic, domestic, crafts', and cultural space.

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Given the requirements of modern agriculture (that basically aim to agronomic-commercial purposes, i.e., fruit 579 aspect, resistance to handling and transport), out of 49 pear tree's morphotypes no more than 2 or 3 would have a 580 role today. PCA graph shows that diversity is the foundation of bio-cultural wealth, that has shaped the local 581 economy's socio-economic development.  Finally, there are many abandoned uses in domestic, crafts', medicinal fields, some of them already recorded some 592 years ago (Bianchi, Gallifuoco, 2004), and that used to concern some fruit trees' species; anyway, they are carved in 593 the memory of elderly people: olive oil to treat every burn; olive leaves' decoction (Manfredonia) used for its 594 beneficial effects on liver, or to treat gallstones; olive bark to help healing wounds (San Giovanni Rotondo). They 595 21 used to eat prickly pear's fruits to take advantage of their laxative effect, and in Mattinata hemorrhoids used to be 596 treated with decoctions of the fruit's peel and some bark's parts. Last, the sap of the wild grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) 597 was once used to treat eye inflammations ; the sap of the cultivated grapevine too was used to linked to local fruit trees, whose current knowledge is yet to be documented, and whose diffusion is very wide, since 608 after all it overlaps with historical rural Italy's.

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Gargano area's case therefore opens some interesting perspectives in the ethnobotanical research on local fruits; all 630 the traditional fruit species are still to be studied, but first, the infraspecific diversity that best suits these territories is 631 yet to be studied, to record traditions that in the current literature reveal astonishing experiences that can be exploited