Experimental Investigation of Concrete With Red Mud: Performance Evaluation and Comparative Analysis

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Experimental Investigation of Concrete With Red Mud: Performance Evaluation and Comparative Analysis

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4500687/v1

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The disposal of red mud, a byproduct resulting from the extraction of alumina from bauxite ore, has emerged as a significant environmental issue owing to its elevated alkalinity and substantial concentration of heavy metals. However, recent studies have shown that red mud can be used as an additional cementitious material in concrete, providing not only environmental benefits but also improved mechanical properties and durability. This study investigates the potential of red mud as an innovative material in advanced thermal energy storage (TES) systems, aiming to enhance sustainable development. The rich composition of red mud in iron oxide, aluminum oxide, and silica suggests promising applications in TES, offering both environmental and economic benefits. The studies generally followed a systematic set of stages in the experimental process of manufacturing concrete cubes both with and without red mud as a partial replacement for cement. The necessary components are first obtained, which include cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water, and red mud. To produce the desired M30 grade concrete, a specific mix design is created, taking into account the amounts of each component. For the addition of red mud, to investigate its effect on concrete properties a set percentage of cement is substituted by Red Mud: 0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20%. The potential of red mud as a partial substitute for cement in concrete is generally considered to be positive by the results of the studies. Beyond performance, the utilization of red mud offers economic advantages by diminishing the need for cement, thereby fostering significant cost savings and concurrently mitigating environmental impact.

Red mud

Cementitious Material

Partial replacement

Fire-resistant coatings

Civil Engineering

Concrete is one of the most popular construction materials in the world due to its strength, durability, and versatility. Nevertheless, it is energy intensive to produce its principal constituent, cement, which contributes substantially to CO2 emissions and raises concern about the environment. Sustainable alternatives to traditional cement need to be explored in view of the growing construction sector. In concrete production, the use of industrial waste as a partial substitute for cement is one such approach(Md Tarique Anwar & Padma Panday, 2022). A viable option for this purpose has been red mud, which is a byproduct of alumina refining. Red mud is an alkaline bauxite residue that contains a complex composition of iron, aluminium, silicon and other trace components. Red mud disposal presents substantial environmental concerns due to its high alkalinity and massive annual production volumes (Venkatesh, Ruben, & Chand, 2020). Recent studies have shown that, in addition to a cementitious component for concrete, Red mud can also be used as an additional waste management and resource conservation benefit (Saravanan & Vijayan, 2020). According to experimental studies, red mud improves the mechanical properties and durability of concrete when used as a partial substitute for cement(Thennarasan Latha, Murugesan, & Thomas, 2023). For example, red mud has been shown to increase the compressive and flexural strength of concrete by approximately 15% at an optimum replacement level (Metilda, D., Selvamony, C., Anandakumar, R., & Seeni, 2015). In addition, the iron content of red mud may give architectural concrete a distinctive color and increase its attractiveness (Ghalehnovi, Asadi Shamsabadi, Khodabakhshian, Sourmeh, & de Brito, 2019). Furthermore, the use of red mud in concrete has been connected to environmental benefits, such as lowering the carbon footprint of cement production and decreasing the negative consequences of red mud disposal (Vadaliwala Khalidhusen, Zakirhusen, Monika S., Patel, Neel V., 2020). By encouraging the reuse of waste materials in building applications, red mud is also being used for concrete construction to comply with sustainable design principles (Saravanan & Vijayan, 2019). Several experimental studies have been conducted on the use of red mud in concrete, with the goal of addressing both environmental concerns and the technical performance of the resulting concrete(Vighash & Sabarigirivasan, 2024). A study of red mud in conjunction with bentonite and activated carbon to make cementitious composite cubes for water treatment. The modified cubes effectively removed heavy metals from water, indicating an environmentally viable use for red mud in water treatment (Sevgili, Dilmaç, & Şimşek, 2021). The study of self-compacting concrete (SCC) has provided evidence that red mud exhibits promise as a partial replacement for fly ash in SCC, while maintaining its fresh and hardened properties without any adverse effects. The study discovered that augmenting the red mud content enhanced the mechanical strength and somewhat improved the interfacial transition zone between the aggregate and cement paste (Tang, Wang, Liu, & Cui, 2018). Ghalehnovi et al., (2019) conducted a study on the potential of red mud to enhance the visual and practical properties of concrete, namely self-compacting architectural concrete (SCAC). The research findings indicate that red mud has the potential to serve as a substitute for cement and filler in concrete, leading to enhanced resistance against sulfate attack and imparting a unique green hue to the material. Moreover, the utilization of red mud does not have a substantial impact on the overall performance of the concrete (Ghalehnovi et al., 2019). Further research on red mud's impact on magnesium phosphate cements Liu et al., (2020) demonstrated that red mud has the ability to enhance the flowability, structural characteristics, and ability to withstand water of MPC. The inclusion of red mud led to a more compact microstructure and the creation of new hydrates, as verified through microscopic examination (Liu, Qin, & Chen, 2020). The research conducted by Md Tarique Anwar and Padma Panday (2022) focused on the challenge of red mud disposal and proposed its potential application in the production of concrete as a partial replacement for cement. The research conducted revealed that the substitution of red mud for cement, up to a maximum of 15%, can result in enhanced compressive and flexural strength (Md Tarique Anwar & Padma Panday, 2022). A comprehensive review of the experimental investigations on red mud replacement in cementitious concrete Saravanan & Vijayan, (2020) provided a comparative analysis of the mechanical and physical properties of concrete with varying percentages of red mud. This review underscored the importance of determining the optimal replacement level to maintain the strength and durability of concrete (Saravanan & Vijayan, 2020). The characterization of red mud as an additive in concrete was investigated by Venkatesh, Ruben, et al. (2020). The study specifically focused on the sustainable utilization of red mud and its impact on the mechanical properties and durability of the concrete. Microscopic examination confirmed that replacing 10% of cement with red mud can enhance the strength and durability of concrete (Venkatesh, Ruben, et al., 2020). Research on the feasibility of partially substituting cement with red mud Metilda, D., et al. (2015) has also verified that a 15% substitution can result in concrete with higher strength compared to traditional mixtures. Nevertheless, additional increments in the amount of red muck present were found to diminish the concrete's strength (Metilda, D., Selvamony, C., Anandakumar, R., & Seeni, 2015). Furthermore, a study on the substitution of red mud in M30 grade concrete Saravanan & Vijayan, (2019) validated the results of prior research, demonstrating that replacing 15% of cement with red mud might enhance the concrete's strength (Saravanan & Vijayan, 2019). In a study, Firmo et al. (2012) examined the fire resistance of reinforced concrete beams reinforced with CFRP and different fire protection systems. The researchers conducted experiments on mortar layers with thicknesses of 25 mm and 40 mm, consisting of vermiculite and perlite, together with calcium silicate boards. The implementation of thermal insulation greatly enhanced the anchorage zones of CFRP laminates. The exposed beams experienced debonding after a duration of 23 minutes, whereas the shielded beams lasted between 60 and 89 minutes (25 mm) and 137 and 167 minutes (40 mm) (Firmo, Correia, & França, 2012). The study conducted by Yao et al. (2013) examined the utilization of red mud and byproducts from the coal industry for the production of cementitious material. During the medium to late curing stages, mechanical testing demonstrated greater strength compared to OPC, with values of 47.5 MPa at 180 days and 48.7 MPa at 360 days. The durability and leaching tests conducted in accordance with ASTM standards demonstrated successful stabilization of heavy metals. The microanalysis demonstrated notable affinity for heavy metals. The material demonstrated compliance with ASTM and EPA criteria, hence emphasizing its viability for the recycling of red mud and coal wastes (Yao et al., 2013). The study conducted by Samal et al. (2013) examined the production and management of red mud in India, with a specific focus on the environmental and health implications associated with its disposal. The study presented a range of sustainable methodologies for harnessing the potential of red mud, including its application in wastewater treatment, soil enhancement, and construction materials. Nevertheless, it underscored the necessity for additional investigation to fully actualize the potential uses of red mud in India (Samal, Ray, & Bandopadhyay, 2013). The fire behavior of thermally insulated beams with various fire suppression devices was assessed by Carlos et al. (2018). The fire resistance of beams was evaluated by subjecting them to testing using mortars composed of normal Portland cement (OP), expanded clay aggregates (EC), or sprayed vermiculite-perlite (VP). The investigation employed numerical models and experimental testing methodologies to examine the structural response of the reinforced beams. The findings indicated that beams equipped with passive fire protection materials, particularly those coated with VP mortar, retained their structural integrity when subjected to extended periods of fire (Carlos, Rodrigues, de Lima, & Dhima, 2018). Venkatesh, Nerella, et al., (2020) conducted a study replacing cement in concrete with red mud (RM) from 0–20% at 5% intervals to address environmental concerns. They used pre-calcined RM at 600°C for two hours and performed various tests like EDS analysis, X-ray diffraction, absorptivity, open porosity, chloride penetration, accelerated corrosion, and water absorption. The study found that 10% RM replacement yielded maximum strength, and RM concrete showed improved durability with decreased open porosity, chloride permeability, water absorption, and sorptivity. The corrosion resistance of RM concrete was boosted due to its high alkalinity, with a pH value exceeding 12.5 (Venkatesh, Nerella, & Chand, 2020). Hou et al. (2021) conducted a study on the application of red mud in ultra-high-performance concrete. They employed an altered Andreasen & Andersen particle packing model to achieve a densely compacted matrix. The inclusion of red mud in Ultra High Performance Concrete enhances its initial durability, but concurrently reduces its mechanical properties and workability, rendering it unsuitable for conventional construction applications. High-temperature curing is employed to achieve ultra-high strength (> 150 MPa) in Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) containing 40% red mud (Hou et al., 2021). The impact of red mud on the long-term corrosion resistance of reinforcing steel in mortars exposed to natural carbonation and chloride attack was explored by Shi et al. (2022). The pore structure, hydration products, and electrical resistivity of 20% red mud mortar were compared to regular Portland cement (OPC) mortar. The electrical resistivity of RM mortar was found to be higher, resulting in improved protection against chloride penetration and oxygen diffusion. This, in turn, enhanced the corrosion resistance of steel. In addition, the inherent carbonation of RM mortar enhanced its resistance against corrosion by facilitating a dense steel-mortar contact through the filling action of CaCO3 (Shi, Guan, Ming, & Zhou, 2022). In summary, the existing body of literature suggests a favorable outlook for the utilization of red mud as a viable alternative to cement in the production of concrete. The findings of the investigations suggest that the incorporation of red mud into concrete has the capacity to enhance its mechanical properties, longevity, and ecological sustainability. The optimal proportion of red mud to substitute in concrete is estimated to be around 10–15%. However, further research is necessary to fully understand the prolonged longevity and broader environmental impacts of red mud in concrete applications.

This section explains the systematic approach taken to assess red mud's potential to replace some of the cement in concrete cubes. Cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water, and red mud are the components required to prepare concrete. Below is a discussion of these materials and their characteristics.

2.1 Cement

One of the essential ingredients of concrete that gives the mixture strength and binding is cement. For our entire project, ordinary portland cement (OPC Grade 53) has been utilized (IS 12269, 2013).

2.2 Fine aggregate

Fine aggregates fill in the spaces left by coarse aggregate. In our project, M- Sand is used as fine aggregate. Crushed hard stones are ground into tiny particles before being cleansed and finely graded for use as construction aggregate. Artificial sand, often known as manufactured sand (M-Sand), is created during this procedure. It is the best substitute for river sand in construction. The properties of the fine aggregate have been determined by the appropriate testing. Sieve analysis is used to determine the particle size distribution in fine aggregate. All the properties of fine aggregate are in accordance with IS 383:1970 (IS:383, 1970).

2.3 COARSE AGGREGATE

The aggregates are often obtained through blasting in stone quarries, hand breaking, or utilizing crusher machinery. While hand-broken aggregates include only one size of stone, machine-crushed aggregates comprise a variety of sizes. Materials that are too large to pass through a sieve with a 4.75 mm hole are referred to as coarse aggregate. Aggregates with sizes ranging from 20 mm to 12.5 mm are used in this project. All the properties of coarse aggregate are in accordance with IS 383:1970 (IS:383, 1970). The test results are mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1

Initial Test Results of materials.
Properties	Cement	Fine Aggregate	Coarse aggregate	Desirable Ranges	IS Code
Specific Gravity	3.14	2.52	2.75	C: 3.15 F.A.: 2.5 to 3.0 C.A.: 2.5 to 3.0	IS 12269 (1987) & IS 2386-3 (1963)
Fineness modulus	-	3.15	6.5	F.A.: 2.9 to 3.2 C.A.: 6.0 to 6.9	IS 383-Part 3 (1970)
Aggregate zone	-	Zone II	-		IS 383–1970
Initial setting time (min)	35	-	-	≥ 30min	IS 12269 − 1987
Final setting time (min)	580	-	-	≤ 600min	IS 12269 − 1987

2.4 Red mud

A highly alkaline byproduct of the Bayer process for alumina extraction from bauxite, red mud has a pH higher than 11 and is thus considered a waste product. This characteristic presents notable environmental disposal difficulties(KOSMATKA, Steven H.; WILSON, 2011). The density of the substance is approximately 2187 kg/m³. The composition of the material primarily consists of oxides, with SiO₂, Al₂O₃, and CaO being the primary constituents, accounting for 45.76%, 40.69%, and 4.98% correspondingly. The red mud looks a lot like fly ash in terms of its particle size distribution. The zeolite family of minerals makes up its crystalline phases, which include gismondine, goosecrekite, and epistilbite (IS 516, 1959). The features of red mud have been identified as having potential use in several fields. The incorporation of waste materials into road base materials has the potential to enhance mechanical and durability characteristics, particularly when used in conjunction with other waste materials. Incorporating red mud into clay liner processes can increase their compressive strength, decrease their hydraulic conductivity, and slow their swelling percentage. By using this material in the polymerization process inorganic polymeric materials have been successfully produced. As a result, products with extraordinary fire resistance, minimal water absorption, acceptable apparent density, and high compressive strength have emerged. Red mud is a pozzolanic substance that improves the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, and cracking tensile strength of self-compacting concrete when added to it. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated to decrease the shrinkage that occurs after drying in self-compacting concrete, maybe as a result of its internal curing effect. Red mud, when incorporated into ceramic bodies, can exert an impact on qualities like as density, strength, and color alterations during the sintering process. An ideal concentration of red mud is approximately 20%. Moreover, working with red mud as a binding agent in conjunction with other industrial byproducts has been assessed, revealing compressive strength characteristics that are similar to those of conventional Portland cement. Implementing red mud in mortar applications has been found to augment both compressive and flexural strength, with optimal outcomes reported when employing a 50% replacement ratio. In a nutshell, red mud supports waste reuse and environmental sustainability through its wide range of beneficial material properties that find application in many geotechnical and construction environments. Figure 1 shows the red mud from this endeavor.

2.5 Water

Water is an important component of concrete because it can be used to increase its strength by chemically lowering cement hydration. The mixing and curing water used must be clean and devoid of any contaminants such as organic compounds or other chemicals that may corrode steel or concrete. Concreting requires water with a pH of 6 or above (IS 456, 2000).

2.6 Mix Design

Concrete mixtures will be designed to achieve a target strength of M30, as per standard practice. The percentage of red mud replacement will vary across different batches, typically ranging from 5–20% by weight of cement. Control mixes without red mud will also be prepared for comparison (BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards), 2009).

A systematic set of stages is followed in the experimental process of manufacturing concrete cubes both with and without red mud as a partial replacement for cement. The necessary components are first obtained, which include cement, fine and coarse aggregates, water, and red mud. To produce the desired M30 grade concrete, a specific mix design is created, taking into account the amounts of each component. In the instance of adding red mud, a set percentage of cement is substituted with red mud to investigate its effect on the properties of the concrete (Shirodkar & Patel, 2022). The components are mixed by hand mixing. The fresh concrete is then poured into cube molds with dimensions of 150 x 150 x 150 mm. The cubes are then cured under standard conditions to allow for proper hydration and development of concrete strength. After the curing period, the concrete cubes are demolded, and their compressive strength is tested using a compression testing machine. Comparative analysis between the cubes with and without red mud provides insights into the potential effects of red mud as a partial replacement of cement on the concrete's mechanical properties, durability, and overall performance. This experimental approach is crucial for evaluating the feasibility and effectiveness of incorporating red mud in concrete production while ensuring structural integrity and sustainability (Viyasun et al., 2020) (Shirodkar, Patel, Verma, & Mahate, 2023).

3.1. Mix Proportion of Concrete

M30 grade concrete was designed in accordance with IS 10262:2009 (BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards), 2009), as shown in Table 2. The mix ratio used was 1: 1.44: 2.57, where the water cement ratio was 0.45 throughout the research. The raw components obtained were checked for impurities and blended in precise amounts. In total, five mixtures were used in the investigation, with the amount of red mud substituting the conventional cement changing from 0–20%. The amount of red mud used to replace conventional cement in each mix was increased by 5%. The varying mixes employed for the experimental investigations are detailed in Table 3.

Table 2

Mix proportion for nominal M30 concrete.
Cement (kg/m³)	Fine Aggregate (kg/m³)	Coarse aggregate (kg/m³)	Water (kg/m³)	w/c ratio
438	631	1124	197	0.45

Table 3

Proportioning of the mixes of RM concrete
Mix Name	Red Mud (%)	Cement (kg/m³)	Fine Aggregate (kg/m³)	Coarse aggregate (kg/m³)	Water (kg/m³)
RM 0	0	438	631	1124	197
RM 05	5	416.10	631	1124	197
RM 10	10	394.20	631	1124	197
RM 15	15	372.30	631	1124	197
RM 20	20	350.40	631	1124	197

3.2 Casting of cubes

Six cubes were cast using the mix design specification provided above. It is critical to know the compressive strength of the cubes in order to ensure that the mix design is correct. The samples will be examined for 7-day and 28-day strength. Each group received three samples, giving a total of six samples which are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. To avoid breakage while demolding, few excess cubes were initially casted.

3.3 CURING OF CONCRETE

Curing is an important step in the production of concrete that involves maintaining proper moisture, temperature, and time to ensure the hydration of cementitious ingredients. Proper curing is required for concrete to achieve the desired strength, durability, and other performance qualities (kosmatka, steven h.; wilson, 2011). Typically, the curing process begins soon after the concrete has been laid and finished. In this procedure, the cubes were continuously cured by placing them inside curing water tank for 7days and 28 days starting on the day of demolding the formwork.s

3.4 TESTING OF CUBES

Concrete's compressive strength measures its ability to withstand compression or crushing forces. It is an important factor in determining concrete's durability and suitability for various applications. It is typically measured by applying compressive force to a cubical piece of concrete until it breaks. To investigate the compressive strength of concrete cubes made with the aforementioned red mud mixtures, compressive strength tests were performed utilizing the Concrete Laboratory's Compression Testing Machine. The results and discussions section highlights the outcomes of the compressive tests performed on the samples listed above. The following formula should be used to calculate the compressive strength of cube specimens casted and cured for 7 days and 28 days for both conventional concrete grade M30 and RM concrete of varied mix ratios. The Fig. 4a & 4b below show the testing procedure of compression test of nominal M30 mix and compression test of RM concrete respectively.

The results of the experimental investigation are described below, compared, and analyzed in order to reach the conclusion of using red mud as a replacement for cement in concrete. The results of Table 4 show that the compressive strength decreases as the red mud content increases. When compared to 15% and 20% of mix, the concrete containing up to 10% red mud achieved near to M30 strength, as shown in Fig. 4a & 4b. The graphs provided in Figs. 5 & 6 presents the compressive strength results of concrete samples at both 7 and 28 days of curing as per Indian Standards (IS 516–1959) (IS 516, 1959). The M30 mix without red mud (RM 0), serving as the baseline, showed a characteristic compressive strength of 22.15 MPa and 35.15 MPa at the 7-day and 28-day marks, respectively.

Table 4

Compressive strength
Mix Name	Compressive Strength, 7 days (MPa)	Compressive Strength, 28 days (MPa)
RM 0	22.15	35.15
RM 05	19.43	31.16
RM 10	15.34	29.76
RM 15	10.40	15.29
RM 20	9.02	11.69

At the 7-day mark, the concrete containing 5% red mud (RM 05) demonstrated a higher compressive strength than the rest of red mud mixes, measuring at 19.43 MPa. In contrast, the mix with 20% red mud (RM 20) exhibited the lower strength, registering at 9.02 MPa.

Figure 6 Compressive strength of RM concrete after 28 days.

Moving forward to the 28-day milestone, the compressive strength of the 5% red mud (RM 05) mix further increased to 31.16 MPa, showcasing its continued improvement. Conversely, the 20% red mud (RM 20) mix, while showing some enhancement, remained lower in strength with a value of 11.69 MPa compared to the 5% mix. These results indicate a notable impact of red mud content on the compressive strength of the concrete samples over the curing period, with lower red mud percentages correlating with higher strength values.

The behavior of concrete cubes with varied percentages of red mud as cement replacement was tested experimentally and the following conclusions were drawn.

The findings of this research study provide valuable insights into the feasibility of utilizing red mud as a partial replacement for cement in concrete. The results demonstrate a clear trend of decreasing compressive strength with an increase in red mud content. However, it is noteworthy that concrete formulations with up to 10% red mud still achieved strength comparable to M30, indicating a promising potential for this alternative material.
The optimal performance was observed in the concrete mix containing 5% red mud, which exhibited a maximum compressive strength of 19.43 MPa after 7 days and 31.16 MPa after 28 days of curing. This suggests that a modest incorporation of red mud can enhance the strength of concrete at certain proportions and curing periods.
The decrease in compressive strength with higher red mud content, particularly evident in the 20% mix, suggests a limit to the amount of red mud that can be added without compromising concrete strength.
The disparity in strength between the 5% and 20% red mud mixes underscores the importance of optimizing red mud content to achieve desired concrete performance, balancing environmental benefits with structural requirements.
While the decrease in compressive strength with higher red mud content raises concerns, the overall findings support the notion that red mud can be a viable supplementary material in concrete production, particularly at lower percentages. Further research and optimization may be required to address the observed decline in strength at higher red mud concentrations. This study contributes valuable information to the ongoing exploration of sustainable alternatives in the construction industry, encouraging continued investigation into the potential benefits and challenges associated with red mud as a cement replacement in concrete.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the help received from Department of Civil Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, India, 603203.

Ethical Approval Not applicable

Consent to Participate All authors actively participated in this work

Consent to Publish The authors consent to publish this research.

Data Availability Statement Data will be made available on request.

Authors Contributions

All authors participated in the study and supported the publication. Shubham Bakshi: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing original draft. L.Sabarigirivasan: conceptualization, validation, editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding This research received no external funding.

Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.

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Experimental Investigation of Concrete With Red Mud: Performance Evaluation and Comparative Analysis

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Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methodology

2.1 Cement

2.2 Fine aggregate

2.3 COARSE AGGREGATE

2.4 Red mud

2.5 Water

2.6 Mix Design

3. Experimental work

3.1. Mix Proportion of Concrete

3.2 Casting of cubes

3.3 CURING OF CONCRETE

3.4 TESTING OF CUBES

4. Results and Discussions

5. Conclusion

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1