Analysis of Gross Alpha, Gross Beta Activities, Heavy Metal Concentrations, and Cancer Risk Assessment in Isparta's Drinking Tap Water

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4623152/v1

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Analysis of Gross Alpha, Gross Beta Activities, Heavy Metal Concentrations, and Cancer Risk Assessment in Isparta's Drinking Tap Water

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4623152/v1

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In this study, tap water samples were collected from different locations in the city center of Isparta. Gross alpha and gross beta activity concentrations were determined according to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) protocol. The annual effective dose and lifetime cancer risk were calculated. The gross alpha activity concentrations ranged from 37 mBq/L to 136 mBq/L, and gross beta activity ranged from 111 mBq/L to 181 mBq/L. These values are below the World Health Organization (WHO) limits of 500 mBq/L for alpha and 1000 mBq/L for beta activities. The lifetime cancer risk assessment for adults, based on these concentrations, ranged from 0.59x10^-4 to 2.36x10^-4 (mean 1.37x10^-4), with the highest value being lower than the UNSCEAR standard of 0.29x10^-3. Additionally, concentrations of several heavy metals, including arsenic (As), barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), and thallium (Tl), were measured at 0.0016, 0.0417, 0.0002, 0.0027, 0.005, 0.0016, 0.0088, 0.0028, and 0.0043 ppm, respectively. The concentrations of As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Se were below the WHO and EPA recommended limits. However, Hg and Tl concentrations were below the WHO limits but exceeded EPA standards. The cancer risk assessment was performed based on the concentrations of As, Pb, Cd, and Cr using the EPA's cancer slope factors. The calculated Hazard Index (HI) for these heavy metals was found to be lower than the EPA's critical level.

Gross alpha

Gross beta

Heavy metal

Lifetime cancer

Annual effective dose

Environmental contamination is a significant challenge faced by society, and heavy metals are among the pollutants that contribute to this issue. These toxic elements can be found in marine environments, groundwater, and industrial wastewater. The presence of heavy metals in the atmosphere results from both natural processes and human activities. For human beings, whose majority consists of water, water and its quality are important for the life and health of human beings. Water carries biological and chemical traces of the elements in its environment. Anthropogenic sources, such as agricultural practices and emissions from industrial facilities, play a crucial role in introducing heavy metals into water systems. In this context, assessing heavy metal concentrations and radioactivity in drinking water is essential for public health. The metal element content in water is in dissolved colloidal form. Some heavy metals and radioactive elements carried by water are transported into the organism by swallowing them with water. If the heavy metal concentration that passes from water to humans is above the recommended value, it causes toxic effects and negatively affects the life balance of the organism [1]. Natural radionuclides and product elements are found in drinking water sources and are transported to the organism by water [2]. These elements taken into the human internal structure can accumulate in the body and negatively affect human health [3]. Since cancer development due to exposure to ionizing radiation is not an immediate effect. Its development may take several years. Temaugee et al. [4] pointed out that cancer types may occur with increasing frequency after radiation exposure and can only be detected by epidemiological methods. In most cases, cancer only happens when the individual reaches an older age. Therefore, the term 'lifetime risk of cancer' (LCR) is defined as the probability of an individual developing cancer during their lifetime. [5]. Researchers have been conducted to determine the values of total alpha and beta activities and the concentrations of some heavy metals in drinking water in residential areas in different countries of the world [6, 7]. Studies indicate that there is a positive correlation between the increase in radiation dose and the occurrence of cancer. [8]. For this reason, it is important to control radioelement emissions in drinking water and for human health [9].

Due to the length of the analysis process of specific radioelements, measurement of total α and β activity concentration has become important to determine the relative radioactivity levels in water [10]. In addition, α and β radiations, which are High Linear Energy Transfer (LET) radiations, are found in drinking water and are considered an important factor in increasing natural radiation exposure in humans [11]. Since alpha and beta radiation is found in every structure, it can be carried by water from every point it touches during the movement of water [12]. In the guideline prepared by the World Health Organization for water quality in 2004, it was stated that determining the total alpha and beta count in water is the basic element in determining the quality of water [13]. According to the guidelines recommended by the World Health Organization, the total α and β activity concentration limit levels in drinking water are 500 and 1000 mBq L, respectively [14, 15]. In summary, understanding heavy metal concentrations and natural radioactivity in tap water is crucial for ensuring safe drinking water and minimizing health risks. This article aims to contribute to the existing knowledge by examining these factors in the context of tap water quality.

Study Area

Isparta is located in the Antalya Section of the Mediterranean Region and the Lakes Region of Turkey, positioned between 30°20' and 31°33' eastern longitudes and 37°18' and 38°30' northern latitudes. Covering a surface area of 8,933 km², Isparta has a population of 445,325, with 268,595 residents living in the city center. The municipal services, including the drinking and potable water network, are managed by the Isparta Municipality. The municipality sources drinking and utility water by disinfecting water from both underground and surface sources. A municipal drinking water treatment facility supplies water from Eğirdir Lake and Darıderesi Pond. Additionally, groundwater is collected, disinfected in the Andik region, and then distributed through a closed system by the Isparta Municipality.

Sampling

In this study, 10 tap water samples were collected from various locations within the city center. The sampling locations and the sources of water supply are depicted in Fig. 1, with their coordinates listed in Table 1. The tap water samples were gathered in two 1.5-liter containers for the analysis of gross alpha and beta concentrations, as well as heavy metal content, in February 2023. To prevent any loss due to the sorption of radioelements on the container walls and to minimize microbial activity, the pH of the collected samples was lowered to below 2 using HNO₃ [16].

Yellow marked: Sampling locations, Blue marked: Tap water supplies locations of the city center

Figure 1. The sampling locations and water supplies of Isparta city center

Table 1. Tap water sampling coordinates

Sample ID	Coordinates
S 1	37°45'04"N 30°34'34"E
S 2	37°45'15"N 30°32'23"E
S 3	37°45'04"N 30°31'45"E
S 4	37°46'56"N 30°31'39"E
S 5	37°45'57"N 30°31'28"E
S 6	37°46'13"N 30°30'50"E
S 7	37°45'59"N 30°32'52"E
S 8	37°45'57"N 30°34'04"E
S 9	37°47'04"N 30°33'15"E
S 10	37°49'08"N 30°32'01"E

Gross alpha and beta activity analyses and annual effective dose

The concentrations of gross alpha and gross beta activities were determined following the protocol established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as outlined by Eckeman [17]. Water samples, collected in 1.5-liter containers, underwent a pH adjustment to below 2 using HNO₃ to prevent any loss through sorption of radioelements on the container walls and to minimize microbial activity [16]. The EPA 900 method was employed to measure the gross alpha and gross beta radioactive concentrations in these water samples. Experimental procedures were conducted at the Isotope Laboratory of the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works (DSI). The results of gross alpha and gross beta activities from the 10 tap water samples are presented in Table 2. The calculation of the dose of gross alpha and gross beta activities resulting from the consumption of drinking water was performed using the Eq. 1 [18]:

$${DR}_{W}=A x {IR}_{W} x {ID}_{F}$$

Where DR_w is the annual effective dose (µSv/year ), A is the activity concentration of isotopes (Bq/L ), IR_W is the water consumption of a person in 1 year (L), and ID_F is the dose conversion coefficient (Sv/Bq).

Table 2. The determined, gross alpha and gross beta activities

	Activity (mBq/L)
Sample ID	Alpha	Beta
S 1	56 ± 24	142 ± 20
S 2	56 ± 18	133 ± 17
S 3	57 ± 15	123 ± 14
S 4	45 ± 13	117 ± 13
S 5	74 ± 16	155 ± 16
S 6	37 ± 17	111 ± 15
S 7	80 ± 23	140 ± 18
S 8	55 ± 25	181 ± 23
S 9	136 ± 32	160 ± 21
S 10	87 ± 26	156 ± 21

To estimate the annual effective doses, individuals were grouped into adults, children, and infants, following the recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), as detailed by Aladeniyi [19]. Annual water consumptions were taken into account for each group, with values of 250 L for infants, 350 L for children, and 750 L for adults. The dose conversion coefficients for main alpha-emitting radionuclides such as ²³²Th, ²¹⁰Po, ²²⁶Ra, ²³⁰Th, ²³⁴U, and ²³⁸U were sourced from literature, with values of 2.3x10^− 4, 1.2x10^− 3, 2.8x10^− 4, 2.1x10^− 4, 4.9x10^− 5, and 4.5x10^− 5 mSv/Bq, respectively. Additionally, the dose conversion coefficients for beta-emitting radionuclides including ⁴⁰K, ²²⁸Ra, and ²¹0Pb were obtained from WHO [20], with values of 6.2x10^− 9, 6.9x10^− 4, and 6.9x10^− 4 mSv/Bq, respectively.

The mean values of alpha and beta-emitting radionuclides, calculated as 3.4 x 10^− 4 mSv/Bq and 4.6 x 10^− 4 mSv/Bq, respectively, were utilized to compute the annual effective dose for each group. The calculated annual doses are presented in Table 3

Table 3. The calculated annual doses

Annual effective dose (µSv/year)
	Infant		Children		Adult
	Alpha	Beta	Alpha	Beta	Alpha	Beta
S 1	4.76	12.07	6.66	16.90	14.28	36.21
S 2	4.76	11.31	6.66	15.83	14.28	33.92
S 3	4.85	10.46	6.78	14.64	14.54	31.37
S 4	3.83	9.95	5.36	13.92	11.48	29.84
S 5	6.29	13.18	8.81	18.45	18.87	39.53
S 6	3.15	9.44	4.40	13.21	9.44	28.31
S 7	6.80	11.90	9.52	16.66	20.40	35.70
S 8	4.68	15.39	6.55	21.54	14.03	46.16
S 9	11.56	13.60	16.18	19.04	34.68	40.80
S 10	7.40	13.26	10.35	18.56	22.19	39.78

Lifetime cancer risk

To estimate the lifetime cancer risk the following Eq. 2 was used

$$LCR={DR}_{w}xLTxRF$$

Where LCR is the lifetime cancer risk, DR_w is the annual effective dose (Sv/year ), LT is the lifetime ( 70 years) and RF is the risk factor (7.3x10^− 2 Sv^− 1 according to ICRP 1991 report) [21].

Heavy metal concentrations and cancer risk assessment

Tap water samples were collected in 1.5-liter bottles and underwent a pH adjustment to below 2 using HNO₃. The concentrations of heavy metals, including As, Ba, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Se, and Tl, were determined using an ICP-OES 720 Axial from Agilent Technologies. The analysis was conducted at the laboratory center of Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University. The results of the determined heavy metal concentrations are presented in Table 4. It is noted that the heavy metal "Be" was not detected in any of the samples, likely due to detection limitations

Table 4. The heavy metal concentration of tap water samples (ppm)

Sample ID	As	Ba	Be	Cd	Cr	Cu	Hg	Pb	Se	TI
S 1	0.002	0.034	0.000	0.000	0.004	0.004	0.002	0.014	0.001	0.009
S 2	0.002	0.048	0.000	0.000	0.003	0.005	0.003	0.001	0.003	0.008
S 3	0.002	0.045	0.000	0.000	0.002	0.006	0.001	0.009	0.004	0.002
S 4	0.001	0.045	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.006	0.003	0.008	0.002	0.002
S 5	0.001	0.047	0.000	0.000	0.003	0.006	0.000	0.013	0.002	0.000
S 6	0.002	0.042	0.000	0.001	0.003	0.003	0.000	0.007	0.001	0.009
S 7	0.000	0.039	0.000	0.000	0.003	0.005	0.002	0.010	0.003	0.005
S 8	0.002	0.034	0.000	0.000	0.002	0.005	0.001	0.011	0.006	0.002
S 9	0.001	0.048	0.000	0.000	0.004	0.005	0.003	0.011	0.002	0.002
S 10	0.003	0.035	0.000	0.001	0.003	0.005	0.001	0.004	0.004	0.004

The carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of heavy metal concentrations obtained from tap water on health were calculated with Eq. 3.

$$ADI=\frac{CxIRxEFxED}{BWxAT}$$

Where ADI is the average daily intake of heavy metals ingested from water (mg/kg-day). C is the heavy metal concentration in water (ppm). IR is the daily intake of water, 2.2 L/day. EF is the exposure frequency, 365 days/year. ED is the exposure duration, 70 years. BW is the body weight of the exposed individual (70 kg). AT is the time period over which the dose is averaged, 365 × 70 = 25.550 days for both carcinogens and noncarcinogens. [22].

The non-carcinogenic hazard quotient (HQ) was obtained by Eq. 4

$$HQ=\frac{ADI}{RfD}$$

Where the chronic reference dose values (RfD) are given in Table 5. [23]

Table 5. Reference dose and cancer slope factors of concentrations determined heavy metals

Heavy metals	Reference dose Values (RfD) (mg/kg per day)			Cancer Slope Factor (SF) 1/(mg/kg per day)
Heavy metals	Oral	Inhalation	Dermal	Oral	Inhalation	Dermal
As	0.0003	0.0003	0.00012	1.5	15	1.5
Pb	0.0035	0.0035	0.00053	0.85
Cd	0.0005	0.001	0.00001	15
Cr	0.003	0.000029	0.00006	0.5	42	20
Cu	0.04	0.042	0.012
Hg	0.0001	0.000086	0.021
Ba	0.2

The non-carcinogenic effects of heavy metals on the population depend on the total HQ of the heavy metals in the water. It brings out another term hazard ındex (HI) as described by USEPA [23]. The hazard index was calculated with Eq. 5.

$$HI=\sum _{k=1}^{n}{HQ}_{k}=\sum _{k=1}^{n}\frac{{ADI}_{k}}{{RfD}_{k}}$$

Where HQ_k, ADI_k, and RfD_k are values of heavy metal k. To calculate the excess lifetime cancer risk according to the heavy metals Eq. 6 was used.

$$ELCR=\sum _{k=1}^{n}{ADI}_{k}\times {SF}_{k}$$

where ELCR is a unitless probability of an individual developing cancer over a lifetime. ADI_k (mg/kg per day) is the average daily intake and SF_k (1/(mg/kg per day)) is the cancer slope factor for the k_th heavy metal, for n number of heavy metals [22].

Gross α and β activity concentrations, annual effective dose, and lifetime cancer risk

The gross alpha and beta activity concentrations of tap water samples were presented in Table 2. The gross alpha activity concentrations ranged from 37 mBq/L to 136 mBq/L, with the highest value observed in sample S 9. These values were found to be below the limit of 500 mBq/L set by the World Health Organization (WHO) in their 2011 report [14]. Similarly, the gross beta activity concentrations ranged from 111 mBq/L to 181 mBq/L, with the highest value recorded in sample S 8. These values also remained below the limit of 1000 mBq/L specified by the WHO in their 2011 report [14]. To provide context, the obtained activity concentrations were compared with the other global studies, and the results are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. The gross alpha and beta activity values of drinking water in the literature

Sampling Area	Gross α (mBq/L)		Gross β (mBq/L)		References
Sampling Area	min.	max.	min.	max.	References
Galati-Romania	6	85	25	435	[24]
Hail-Saudi Arabia	17	541	480	516	[25]
Guilan- Iran	12	115	23	332	[16]
Balaton- Hungary	35	1749	33	2015	[26]
Siirt- Turkey	50	5640	60	2760	[27]
Dustin Ma- Nigeria	2	37	8	2014	[1]
Isparta- Turkey	37	136	111	181	This Study

The annual effective dose of gross α and β activity concentration of tap water is shown in Table 3. The annual effective dose of α ranges from 3.15–11.56 (mean 5.81) µSv/year, 4.40-16.18 (mean 8.13) µSv/year, and 9.44–34.68 (mean 17.42) µSv/year for infant, children, and adult respectively. Meanwhile the annual effective dose β range from 9.44–15.39 (mean 12.05) µSv/year, 13.21–21.54 (mean 16.87) µSv/year, and 28.31–46.16 (mean 36.16) µSv/year for infant, children and adult respectively. The annual effective doses are under the limit of WHO reference level (100 µSv/year)

The lifetime cancer risk assessment in the tap water samples were calculated for adults with Eq. 2 and the obtained results were ranged from 0.59x10^− 4 to 2.36x10^− 4 (mean 1.37x10^− 4) for both α and β concentrations. The obtained highest value of the lifetime cancer risk value is lower than the average standard value of 0.29x10^− 3 [11, 5].

Heavy metal concentrations and cancer risk assessment

The concentrations of heavy metals in the tap water samples are presented in Table 4, with mean values for As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Se, and Tl reported as 0.0016, 0.0417, 0.0002, 0.0027, 0.005, 0.0016, 0.0088, 0.0028, and 0.0043 ppm, respectively. These variations in concentration levels are primarily attributed to physical and chemical interactions with minerals in water resources and distribution routes. The concentrations of As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, and Se are all below the limitation concentration levels set by both the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). However, the concentrations of Hg and Tl, while under the limit level of WHO, exceed the EPA standard of 0.002 ppm, with Tl concentrations reaching up to 4–5 times higher than the EPA limits. Elevated levels of Hg can lead to kidney damage, while TI exposure can result in hair loss, blood, kidney, intestine, or liver problems, according to the EPA. The EPA identifies sources of contamination in drinking water as erosion of natural deposits, discharge from refineries and factories, and runoff from landfills and croplands.

Cancer risk assessments were calculated based on the heavy metal concentrations, with results including Hazard Quotient (HQ), Hazard Index (HI), and Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) listed in Table 7. A HI value greater than 1 indicates a potential cancer risk from drinking water [22]. So, based on the calculated HI values, it can be assumed that there isn’t any carcinogenic effect from the tap water.

Table 7. The calculated HQ, HI, and ELCR

Hazard quotient (HQ)							Hazard ındex (HI)	Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR)
As	Ba	Cd	Cr	Cu	Hg	Pb	Hazard ındex (HI)	Excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR)
0.0168	0.0066	0.0126	0.0283	0.0039	0.5038	0.0792	0.6387	0.0004

This study investigated the gross alpha and beta activities, concentrations of selected heavy metals, and the associated lifetime cancer risks in drinking tap water from various sources in Isparta. The findings revealed that while the levels of gross alpha and beta activities varied across the samples, they were generally within acceptable limits set by international standards such as those of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The gross α and β activities were obtained as 37–136 (mean 68) mBq/L and 111–181 (mean 142) mBq/L respectively. In addition, the annual effective doses were calculated for both α and β and the calculated doses were determined under the limit of WHO reference level (100 µSv/year). Also, the obtained highest lifetime cancer risk value from the sample is lower than the average standard value of 0.29x10^-3 [11]. The obtained heavy metal concentrations are below the limitation concentration level of the WHO and EPA except for Hg and TI. The reason for this excess can be considered runoff from landfills and croplands around the Isparta. In addition, the cancer risk assessment was calculated from heavy metal concentrations and the calculated HI level of heavy metals is lower than the critical level of EPA. Overall, this study underscores the importance of continuous surveillance and stringent quality control of drinking water to minimize public health risks associated with radioactive and heavy metal contaminants. Future research should focus on identifying the sources of contamination and evaluating the effectiveness of water treatment processes in reducing these harmful substances.

Competing Interests:

The author declares no confict of interest

Funding:

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Author Contribution

Ramazan MANAV: Sampling, Methodology, Validation, Writing, Visualization. The author has read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript

Data Availability

Sequence data that support the findings of this study have been deposited in the science data bank (link: https://www.scidb.cn/en/s/eqaI3m)

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No competing interests reported.

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Analysis of Gross Alpha, Gross Beta Activities, Heavy Metal Concentrations, and Cancer Risk Assessment in Isparta's Drinking Tap Water

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Material and Methods

Study Area

Sampling

Gross alpha and beta activity analyses and annual effective dose

Lifetime cancer risk

Heavy metal concentrations and cancer risk assessment

Result and Discussion

Gross α and β activity concentrations, annual effective dose, and lifetime cancer risk

Heavy metal concentrations and cancer risk assessment

Conclusion

Declarations

Competing Interests:

Funding:

Author Contribution

Data Availability

References

Additional Declarations

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