An Ethno-mimicry Approach to Managing Buildings’ End-of-life Construction and Demolition Waste in Nigeria: Militating Factors and Improvement Measures

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629963/v1

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An Ethno-mimicry Approach to Managing Buildings’ End-of-life Construction and Demolition Waste in Nigeria: Militating Factors and Improvement Measures

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4629963/v1

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Purpose

The end-of-life phase of buildings has been regarded as the phase where the most unsustainable practices in the construction project lifecycle occur. This is due to the usual mismanagement of a significant amount of building material waste available during this phase. Recently, studies concerning how the mimicking of nature’s approach to waste management can serve as a panacea to such mismanagement have gained traction. However, an overt focus on the adoption of biomimetic principles by extant studies has been observed. Limited attention has been paid to any lessons to be learnt from pre-industrial societies on ways to harmoniously live with the earth in a sustainable manner and to deploy the same for effective management of building construction and demolition waste management. This study seeks to bridge this gap through an in-depth exploration of this nexus to establish the militating factors negating buildings’ end-of-life management practice by these native societies (ethno-mimicry) in Nigeria.

Design/methodology/approach:

The study adopted a qualitative research design to achieve the study’s aim. The study engaged nineteen experts through semi-structured interviews in the city of Kano, Nigeria. The data was analysed using the thematic analysis approach.

Findings:

The study’s findings identified technology, illegality, harassment by law enforcement agencies, occupational health and safety, storage, regulations, amongst others as factors negating the growth and development of the ethno-mimicry approach to buildings’ end-of-life management by some preindustrial societies in Nigeria. Furthermore, standardisation, material database, policies and legislation are identified as improvement measures.

Originality:

The practices of native societies in Nigeria is trading on salvaged materials from demolished buildings have its challenges and this study revealed these challenges and the improvement measures.

Recommendation

: Based on the foregoing, the study recommends that policy makers in Nigeria and elsewhere should begin to consider the proffered measures of the study to address the challenges currently being faced by this preindustrial society in end-of-life management of buildings.

Buildings. Biomimicry. Demolition Waste

Ethno-mimicry. End-of-life

Nigeria

The construction industry is expected to contribute towards enhancing the national economic growth and well-being of the citizenry through the provision of buildings required by citizens and non-citizens to live and execute their daily tasks, engendering the actualisation of sustainable development goals (SDGs). However, many 20th -century thinkers have come to realise the negative impacts such buildings and the activities associated with their delivery and subsequent management have come to pose on the Anthropocene. This has led to a renewed interest in reducing the negative effects of buildings on the environment through the propagation and adoption of new approaches aimed at offering more sustainable solutions when compared to the traditional methods of construction. These new approaches consist of the following, ecological designs, green buildings, ecologically sustainable designs, and high-performance buildings, among others [1]. According to [2], the pressure of resource use should be at the forefront if structures are to be sustainable. Therefore, it has become critical for professionals working within the built environment discipline to evolve suitable solution detailing how to construct and operate buildings as well as how to get rid of the waste produced during building construction in general and deconstruction in particular at the end-of-life phase.

This is important as [3] posited that building construction and demolition waste (BC&DW) contributes around 30% and 40% respectively of the total waste (solid) generated in Europe and the United States. This has been projected to grow by 2025 as about 2.2 billion tonnes of demolition waste is expected to be generated globally if the current trend continues [4]. Impliedly, BC&DW is of the fastest-growing waste streams. This has been attributed to rapid urbanisation and large-scale economic development ongoing globally [5]. [6] opined that the most unsustainable practice in the construction industry occurs during a project’s end-of-life phase as demolition generates large amount of waste. This is due to the large amount of building material waste available at the end-of-life phase of a building that could be recovered, reuse, or recycled, thus help prevent depletion of resources [7]. BC&DW, which comprises of a combination of non-inert [8] and inert materials [9] which are not properly managed thereby posing economic [10]; organisational, operational, environmental, and social [11] problems in both developing and developed nations. According to [8], the repercussion of ineffective BC&DW management includes depletion of ozone layer, acidification of the aquatic and terrestrial environment, global warming, and respiratory issues. Other problems include illegal dumping of BC&DW and the depletion of virgin materials amidst public concern [12]. Hence, one of the main sustainability problems that humanity is currently facing will be lessened if a solution is found for the waste produced by building deconstruction after its useful life. Based on the foregoing, [13] classified BC&DW management as a form of sustainable construction practices under the environmental dimension. However, this form of management adopts various forms/strategies. One of such strategy involves learning from other sectors and/or, preferably, from nature (biomimicry).

According to [14], biomimicry occurs in three stages. These stages include behaviour, organism, and ecosystem. The behaviour stage involves mimicking the behaviour of organisms and they interact with the environment. The organism stage involves mimicking the form, shape, structure of an organism which could either be a plant or an animal. The third stage involves copying the ecosystem and the guiding principles that enable effectiveness therein. Biomimicry has been the brain behind the development of several concepts within the built environment [15]. Several studies focusing on the utility of biomimicry and biomimetic principles in the construction industry and how the industry can mimic nature in solving problems encountered in the industry, thereby engendering the attainment of sustainability have been conducted. According to extant corpus of relevant literature, biomimicry has inspired the design of energy-efficient buildings [16, 17, 18], alternative clay bricks design [19], design of resilient civil infrastructure systems [20], adaptive building envelopes [21, 22], 3D concrete printing [23], thermal performance of buildings [24], cooling technologies in buildings [25], passive sustainable ventilation system [26], building skin adaptation [27], building materials for climate change [28] and so on. However, limited studies focusing on how biomimicry has or can help in managing resource degradation and waste generation exist. Some of the limited literature available has considered alternatives to managing BC&DW at the end-of-life of a building using a variety of strategies. [29] opined that, if mankind could learn from nature to solve related problems, i.e., biomimicry, it can also learn from native societies concerning the way they live with nature harmoniously and deploy this as a strategy to engender effective BC&DW management. They referred to this concept as “ethno-mimicry”.

According to [29], ethno-mimicry is defined as ‘a systematic study of the native societies for imitation or inspiration to develop sustainable solutions’. The study highlighted the need for urban westerners to learn from the wisdom of preindustrial societies on ways to live harmoniously with the earth in a sustainable manner. Furthermore, their study posited that preindustrial societies often are advanced in dealings and learning from nature when compared to industrialised societies. In Nigeria and, as can be attested to by the ancient Japanese population's success at long-term sustainability, buildings’ end-of-life management remains one of the best instances of sustainable practices exhibited by native societies. Whilst it is typical of economically advanced countries to report a high volume of BC&DW, studies on Nigeria's common waste stream [30, 31, 32, 33], and anecdotal evidence indicate that Nigeria has minimal levels of construction and demolition waste. Given the significance of resource conservation amidst the present global wave of sustainability awareness, this piques curiosity, and makes it imperative for an in-depth comprehension of Nigeria's BC&D system. In another study by [34], the sustainable practices in BC&DW management among some native societies in Nigeria were evaluated and reported.

However, there are challenges that need to be overcome, particularly by these native societies in buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria. Just like the case of the more popular biomimicry concept where barriers such as non-implementation of biomimetic principles, poor understanding of relevant approaches, and biomimicry knowledge integration problems [35] have been identified, the pre-industrial societies’ management of BC&DW as an emerging sustainability phenomenon appears to be confronted with factors inhibiting its practice. Yet a paucity of studies seeking to investigate this facet has been observed. Therefore, this study set out to bridge this gap by investigating the adoption of ethno-mimicry as an approach to buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria by the preindustrial societies, with the main objective of establishing the factors militating against such adoption. It is expected that identifying such barriers would also engender an elicitation of probable measures for improving the practice. Furthermore, this study contributes to the sustainable construction knowledge domain with particular emphasis on the role of ethno-mimicry.

2.1 Building and Construction Demolition Waste Management

[36, 37, 38, 39] posited that BC&DW is a material that has to be transferred away from the building site or utilised there instead of the project's planned specified use owing to damage, excess, or non-use, or that are byproducts of the construction process and cannot be used because they do not meet the needed criteria. The management of BC&DW is, in theory, generally similar to the management of solid waste; however, the implementation of the principles of sustainable waste management technique may differ slightly. The first is the principle of reduce, reuse, and recycle, which is also applicable to construction waste in general and demolition waste management in particular. These are the first three of the CIB's seven principles of sustainable construction [40]. Deliberate design efforts or design for deconstruction (DFD), careful material selection, and waste accountability clauses in contracts with contractors and subcontractors are typically required to reduce demolition waste [40]. Other scholars have identified techniques to reduce waste production from construction activities and the requirement for supplies. These techniques include the modification of buildings for various uses and extending their usefulness, using lightweight construction materials and techniques, and minimising the "loss factor" in material usage during construction projects through careful management. The other is the material's durability both in use and during construction [41].

Secondly, reusing materials is ingrained in the construction business, and display pavilions are an example of a type of structure that is made to be disassembled and moved to another area. The Crystal Palace, the British and Venezuelan pavilions at Seville Expo'92, and the Millennium Dome O2 arena are a few examples. The Crystal Palace was first put together in 1851 for an exhibition in Hyde Park. In 1854, it was expanded and put back together in a new location in London [42]. Nevertheless, there is a resurgence of interest in recycling materials for construction [43], including utilising recycled aggregate in concrete [44, 43, 45], which is encouraging the recycling of more than 325 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste in America. There are publications advocating giving an aged wood a new life. [46, 47], and private business owners urging the reuse of construction materials (48].

Lack of product standards and the potential for harm during deconstruction exercises are barriers to the reuse of building components. However, with new methods for designing and constructing for deconstruction (DFD) emerging, such issues are probably going to be reduced [41]. This understanding renders recycling the next-best choice for materials that may not be valuable in any other way.

Finally, the type of material determines the recycling approach to be adopted in the building sector. Whilst it is reported that 60% of steel is recycled in the UK and may be greater elsewhere, steel can be recycled an infinite number of times [49]. The study further posited that due to mass losses in the recycling process from oxidation and production inefficiencies, aluminium recycling has an efficiency of roughly 85.7%. Even though it is frequently used for interior treatments, plasterboard is not a recycling-friendly material. Roof tiles, thermosetting plastic, and masonry components that may not be recyclable can all be easily replaced with different materials or, in certain cases, downcycled. Reprocessing masonry to create hardcore is an illustration of downcycling in the building industry [49].

According to estimates, concrete is the most often utilised artificial material with each person using three tonnes annually [44]. While aggregates make up most of the concrete (75% of its composition), the use of recycled aggregates in concrete is now gaining popularity as another method for utilising resources sustainably. Having determined the effects of recycled aggregates on the various qualities of concrete through research, the use of such aggregates has been integrated into regulations and standards in at least ten different countries globally. Construction and demolition debris, as well as recovered waste from manufacturing processes, are the most common sources of aggregates [44].

2.2 Building and Construction Demolition Waste Management in Nigeria

Processes associated with the construction and demolition of buildings in the UK produce 90–120 million tonnes of waste each year [50, 51]. Although this may be on a decline, the ambition expressed in the 2020 Waste Framework Directive concerning the recover 70% of C&D waste [52] serves as an indication that significant work remains to be done. Similar efforts by the Building and Demolition Recycling Association in the United States to collect over 325 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste support estimates that the country produces about 140 million tonnes of such waste [45, 1]. On the other hand, it was claimed that for more than 25 years, Japanese scientists have been working on finding practical techniques to recover materials from demolished buildings [43].

Contrarily, studies focusing on the Nigerian context suggest that solid waste streams in Nigerian landfills do not include building and demolition waste [30, 32, 33]. In another study wherein waste management practices in the Nigerian construction sector were assessed by [53], the authors provided numbers from several sources indicating the percentage of construction waste in the landfill for Australia, the United Kingdom, the United States, the European Union and Chile, but did not provide any such information for Nigeria despite Nigeria being the focus of their study. However, this should not be construed as evidence of an effective BC&DW management, in-country as other reasons may be adduced for these observations. For example, [54] indicated that most Nigerian construction managers lack a fundamental understanding of waste management procedures, indicating the minimal emphasis accorded to the management of building and demolition waste in the country. This may result in BC&DW being either improperly disposed of or reused/recycled on-site and the sale of such waste in an already established secondary market. Therefore, whilst efforts to recover materials from construction and demolition wastes gain momentum in other nations [43], this appears not to be a top priority in Nigeria because there are, essentially, minute quantities of demolition wastes observed; instead, by-products from building demolition are treated as merchandise in an industry made up of various stakeholders, creating business opportunities and jobs. Locals are acquainted with the marketplaces for recycled materials. Research in this area is necessary because this naturally occurring process has not been expressly described in literature. While efforts to recover materials from construction and demolition wastes are gaining momentum in other nations [43], this is not a top priority in Nigeria because there are currently essentially no demolition wastes; instead, the by-products from building demolition are treated as merchandise in an industry made up of various stakeholders, creating business opportunities and jobs. Locals are acquainted with the marketplaces for recycled materials. Research in this area is necessary because this naturally occurring process has not been described in literature. In addition, [55] claims that the National Environmental (Construction Sector) Regulations, 2010, S. I. No. 19 were expressly targeted at the construction industry to prioritize minimising pollution wastes. Construction and demolition waste was not mentioned in another rule of the National Environmental (Sanitation and Wastes Control) Regulations, 2009.

Whereas the management of solid wastes in developing nations is typically thought to be entirely driven by economic factors [56], a related study demonstrates that the phenomenon of the management of building demolition waste is driven by other factors in addition to economic ones. The motivations behind this behaviour, however, are outside the purview of this study.

2.3 The Role of Ethno-mimicry in Facilitating Sustainable Construction

Due to the continuous quest for improvement and advancement in technology and science, there is an increasing inquisitiveness in an understanding of nature and natural processes. Hence, applying nature’s system knowledge in the activities of mankind is not unconventional. Throughout history, mankind has relied on its environment for survival and existence. Biomimicry has been described by [57] as resulting from mankind’s pursuit of nature’s attributes (self-repair, self-sustaining, and self-assembly ecosystem) and mimicking these attributes for the delivery of sustainable solutions to societal problems. This involves imitating the principles, strategies, and mechanisms that reside in nature to proffer solutions. However, it is on record that although there are pre-industrial societies that collapsed from unsustainable practices, there are additionally a great number of tribal civilizations' cultural traditions and worldviews that supported sustainability ideas [57]. Accordingly, Benyus opined that an opportune time would come when the search for sustainable solutions may involve studying the pre-industrial societies' knowledge for guidance on how to live harmoniously and sustainably on Earth. This practice would be known as ethno-mimicry, a Greek word for race or people [57, 58].

The significant amount of waste produced during building construction and deconstruction necessitates a solution, which might involve drawing inspiration from aboriginal nations' customs. A comprehensive investigation for documentation and development of better knowledge concerning the most likely contributing factors is regarded as appropriate for the undocumented Nigerian practice of managing buildings at the end of their useful lives, which produces no demolition waste. The study of [29], discovered that there is an industry for building materials salvaged from construction sites in Nigeria. This industry has different stakeholders within it who engage with building owners, trade on salvaged materials as it is, reprocess the salvaged materials before trading, and scavenge on demolition sites to save as much as possible. For the actors that process the salvaged materials before trading, some of the products from the salvaged materials include cooking pots, coal stoves, poultry feeders, coal stoves, and bread mould among others. Based on the foregoing, this serves to demonstrate that salvaged construction materials in Nigeria are not only goods but also form the foundation of a significant business ecosystem as they are not considered waste or commodities without any market value. This market is just as sophisticated as any other, and the industry is organised, with several layers of actors performing various duties, leveraging on inter-generational culture, norms and beliefs. If humanity can learn more about the people who work in this sector, they should be able to perceive it as riches rather than waste, or even reconsider the idea of waste and realise the universal value of sustainability [59]. Rather than being dismissed as informal and subpar, these systems should be carefully examined and favorably analysed for ideas on how to re-organise the so-called "formal sectors" in the manner of the formerly "informal sectors" to create zero waste and become more sustainable. However, there are barriers faced by these systems which negate their effectiveness. This study seeks to highlight these challenges.

A qualitative research design was adopted for this study. According to [60], interpretivism is the root of qualitative research. [61] further opined that interpretivism views social interaction intuitively as a variable. This study adopted a phenomenological qualitative research design type and the snowballing sampling technique employed was adopted, targeting participants believed to be experts on the phenomenon being understudied [62]. The study was conducted in Kano, which is Nigeria’s most populous state after Lagos. Kano State is the most populous of the second-class townships recognised by the township ordinances act of 1917 with a diverse makeup [63]. Kano was chosen as the research region for three reasons: its population, its heterogeneity, and the fact that the phenomena were discovered there. Nineteen (19) people signed up for this study, and sixteen (16) interviews were done due to four of the participants opting for a group interview. The remaining fifteen (15) participants were interviewed individually. The initial study design called for 21 interviews with a quota of three (3) participants from each of the stakeholder groups. For three reasons, though, this was out of step with the realities on the ground. In fact, there was not a fair distribution of participants' availability and willingness among the stakeholder categories. The fact that some individuals belonged to more than one group, however, suggests that some of them had numerous roles to perform in the sector. Additionally, the researcher was unable to influence who was to be suggested or to which group s/he may belong due to the use of the snowballing sampling technique in this study. However, this was not considered a limitation as data saturation was reached within the sample thereby signaling the sufficient nature of the qualitative data. Architects, Quantity Surveyors, Contractors, Civil Engineers, Planers, Artisans, and Tipper Drivers in their retirement participated in the study.

Although all variations in the interviewees' replies were examined, the data was also processed utilising a thematic technique template analysis. The Computer-Aided Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) QDA Miner Lite 1.4 received the transcribed interviews as cases. Based on the interview's main themes and sub-themes as well as previously unidentified themes elicited from the participants' responses, hierarchical codes were developed. In groups, the codes were arranged in accordance with the major subjects. After that, each case segment (transcribed interview) was given one or more codes that matched the specific information. While certain phrases and paragraphs produced new themes and codes, others were dropped due to their lack of significance. Using the software's retrieval tool, all participant submissions on a certain topic were retrieved and presented in tabular format.

In this section, the findings are based on the aim of the study, which is to determine the challenges to approaching buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria and also to look at measures for improving the practice. This is considered important because of the quantity of waste produced during building deconstruction, which necessitates a solution that takes into account native civilizations' customs. These difficulties that must be solved in Nigerian end-of-life building management practice are presented in the following subsections.

4.1 Challenges

4.1.1 Availability of Technology

Two respondents mentioned that in Nigeria, human labor is occasionally employed to demolish buildings when there is no other choice or when using alternative techniques would be too costly. “The biggest issue we face in Kano is a shortage of equipment. We have so little of it, and when we do, it costs a lot to rent it. As a result, one has resorted to using human labour (manual labour) to complete the tasks.” (P13). Better technologies tend to be in high demand in the building industry, which includes the demolition sector (P12).

Even while it relieves labourers, using machinery for building demolition is likely to result in pollution and the usage of fossil fuels, which are harmful to the sustainability paradigm. On the other hand, using hand tools rather than large machines may be justified if the materials must be removed in a usable state. A situation where hand tools were used instead of the available equipment to minimise material damage has been documented. (P13).

4.1.2 Materials Handling Illegality

There have been examples of documented improper treatment of recovered items following demolition, particularly in initiatives involving the public. One of the participants shared a tale of how recovered materials were diverted as “Typically, the revenue from the sales of the salvaged materials does not go to the state. The employees negotiate in secret with the prospective customers. Interested individuals approach contractors or truck drivers who are scheduled to remove rubble to a landfill and offer payment to have the product redirected to their location. Both the employees and the contractors seize the chance. I know of an owner who would like to reclaim a pond for development; he stays on the lookout and is willing to make the necessary arrangements.” (P05).

Similar to this, there was a tale of a more audacious experience on another project that involved turning a police barracks into a general hospital. In an unrestrained battle for the salvaged objects, everyone seized authority over the decommissioning procedure (P13). Hence, the need to establish a framework for the effective management of the salvaged products transfer process is underscored by this episode, especially in light of the possibility of other problems, such as confrontations with security officers.

4.1.3 Law Enforcement Agents Harassment

Marketers of salvaged materials reported police harassment because they believed the merchandise could have been obtained illegally (P07). As was already highlighted, the salvaged materials business occasionally has a bad reputation due to the actions of criminal actors in one way or another.

4.1.4 Occupational Health and Safety

Some of the participants' experiences indicate similarities between the situation report on the state of occupational health and safety (OHS) performance in Nigerian building demolition projects and that of the country's overall construction sector. Issues relating to the OHS performance in demolition in Kano were deemed challenging by a merchant of salvaged items who occasionally works as a contractor. The workforce is untrained and careless when it comes to OHS compliance Although, he only cited one example, he opined that there may be many more unreported and unrecorded deaths resulting from demolition activities, especially falls from heights (P01). Other interviewees concurred, saying that for Nigerians who prioritize monetary gain over everything else, compliance with OHS standards during demolition remained the last thing on their minds (P14; P15). Some individuals believed that compliance with OHS measures may only be necessary when working with multi-story structures (P06). “Everyone seems to be acting independently; there doesn't seem to be any concerted effort” (P10); “OHS was one of the numerous things Nigerians were perceived to take for granted.” (P07). The rendition of another interviewee, claiming to have performed multiple roles in the construction industry, bothers on the extreme. According to him: “In our construction industry, health and safety are rarely given enough thought. There is a project about which I oversee the finances and which I paid for an accident victim's emergency care on the scene. Regretfully, the client was incensed and objected strenuously to the behaviour. There are instances of construction projects in which, despite a budgetary clause in the contract specifically addressing health and safety, the contractors totally disregard these issues. The government will undoubtedly take action if it is made aware of these problems” (P03).

On the other hand, there were reports of successful attempts to implement some OHS measures in demolition activities. The use of hand gloves, proactive broadcasting to neighbors who could be impacted by the demolition, and the use of face masks, helmets, and safety boots were all noted (P08) (P10). According to reports, the demolition crew engaged by the development control authority wears boots, jackets, whistles, and there is a backup medical team (P16). First aid box distribution (P07) and proactive communication with a neighboring hospital were also mentioned (P08; P09), in line with (P02): “There is usually a first aid box on site, and a medical medical personnel within reach are identified”.

Furthermore, narratives concerning the way accident victims are treated reveal a mixed experience, with both bad and good anecdotes. According to an interviewee (P05), on one project, the client covered the costs of a worker's medical care after he shattered his leg, as well as some further restitution. Another time, out of compassion, the demolition project manager personally paid the medical expenditures associated with two separate accident occurrences. The customer who expressed sympathy did not provide any money.

The worst-case situations are when a person is left alone and receives no help from anyone, as presented by (P05), and (P10). This subsequent narrative detailed how a friend of one of the interviewees who was a victim was fared: “in most cases, you just have to help yourselves. Many of the clients do not do anything. A carpenter colleague fell down and got a serious injury, but the building owner only gave five thousand naira (less than £10 GBP) to the victim and thereafter did not do anymore. A relative of the victim had to pay for the medical bills” (P05).

Another trend is the use of salvaged materials from demolished buildings by independent contractors known as "Yangwangwan (Tinkers)". As a preventive measure, they occasionally wear hand gloves, although traditional methods are used to treat injuries. Based on the interview with the group of four participants, they preferred a conventional approach to treating wounds. They expressed faith in the spider curve waves' ability to effectively cure wounds! They contend that it served as a tetanus immunisation in addition to instantly stopping bleeding. Even though accidents happen often in their line of work, they said that they had never had a case of tetanus (P07). This argument deserves more consideration beyond the purview of this study, especially considering the growing acceptance of biomimicry. There is clearly no reason to rule out the possibility that spider curve waves have some therapeutic benefits; however, whether they should be accepted as a kind of treatment is a separate discussion that is outside the purview of this study.

Half of the other interviewees were unhappy with the way accident victims are handled, in contrast to the "Yangwangwan" - tinkers who were content with conventional care. The preponderance of these accidents obviously stemmed from the poor management of OHS compliance, which is usually disorganised and random. With accident victims left at the mercy of any willing and sympathetic individual, responsibilities are not clearly defined. Another interviewee recounted the circumstances as follows:

“This thing (OHS) has never been taken seriously in this part of the country; ... The client may pay for the medical bills on humanitarian grounds but there is no obligation” (P11). According to one interviewee added: “I never had an inspector coming to a building introducing himself as coming for safety”.

This highlights the necessity for a complete strategy for ensuring OHS compliance among building demolition workers, including laws outlining the obligations of all parties and the establishment of an enforcement body.

4.1.5 Public Reaction

Every time a public building is demolished, the social milieu, as expressed by one interviewee (P12), might be difficult; “You face challenges from the surrounding people”, he said. This could entail stealing and disturbances brought on by rivalry over who gets to keep the salvaged building components. Another interviewee noted that when a building is demolished by the government, it brings about changes, and individuals are naturally more resistant to changes when their own property is involved (P02). It was suggested that communication with the neighbourhood becomes essential when public facilities are decommissioned, especially when there is a shift in function (P13).

4.1.6 Storage

In one instance, demolition waste from a demolished building was needed for the proposed new construction, but there was not enough room for storage, which resulted in objections from nearby neighbours. As a result, the debris had to be removed and repurchased at a later stage of the project (P11). An interviewee referred to these situations as difficulties and said “…you know, you need a store for other items too” (P11).

4.1.7 Supervision

Building demolition is a labour-intensive operation that needs careful and committed supervision, especially when salvageable materials may need to be removed (P11). This was seen as just another obstacle for the sector.

4.1.8 Regulation

Building demolition was often thought of as a free-for-all, unregulated enterprise requiring a prompt reaction. This might take the shape of rules to direct the actions of the specialists engaged (P04), or it could be guidance on how to manage the waste products of the demolition initiatives (P15).

4.1.9 Treatment of Hazardous Materials.

Only a few interviewees thought that there may be some precautions taken while demolishing buildings, even though the majority (80%) reported at least one hazardous element related to building demolition. Asbestos (P06; P09; P14), soakaway and septic tanks (P04; P10), dusts (P02; P03), iron rod reinforcement (P05), and plastics are among the substances recognised as dangerous (P06). Other items cited include chemicals, shattered glasses (P08), exposed nails on wood (P11), and (P15). As mentioned by a participant, it appears that the employees might not always be concerned with taking any safety precautions while handling these things., “To be very honest with you, those local people do not care about hazardous materials” (P14). Conversely, there can be insufficient usage of boots, safety helmets, and face masks. (P02; P16).

4.2 Measures for Improving Practice

4.2.1 Standardisation

Numerous interviewees agreed that standardisation can enhance the way in which resources from demolished structures can be used. However, the ongoing practice of processing salvaged materials from defunct structures has included informal standardization techniques. One of the marketers of recycled materials said the following: “Materials are graded informally for the purpose of marketing and maximising profit. Naturally, materials are not sold at the same price; the condition and level of deterioration of the item determines the price. The buyers too are aware and they buy according to their budget and the purpose it is going to be used” (P01). Another interviewee affirmed this assertion by saying, “Yes, people categorize the materials according to their quality; even the prices are not the same” (P10). In this situation, both caveat emptor, which means "let the buyer beware," and caveat venditor, which means "let the seller beware," are applicable. The buyer also inspects and makes purchases based on the materials' suitability for his or her purpose, just as the seller grades and prices the materials in accordance with their quality. Technical requirements, including material strength, fire ratings, and other material property criteria that could be provided in numbers, might be missing from this procedure.

Other interviewees, however, argued that the materials' intrinsic qualities are relevant in this case. P06, for example, said that “the initial grading of the materials helps in using as reusable material in a demolished building. You find that in some the deterioration over time is not significant [sic]”. How much a certain object has deteriorated through time, and how long will it be able to serve the same or a new purpose in a building? These are all inquiries that require a response!

Some of the interviewees believed that laws, regulations, and/or standards are required to reduce hazards and create a more organised industry (P03; P13; P15; P16). This point was highlighted by (P03), who said that “Standards must be followed, which is why I stated that a thorough act of legislation is required. Once we have this, we can standardize everything and have materials descriptions, manuals, and shop drawings for everything we have. In the event that a building is being constructed, you are required to provide the customer with comprehensive information regarding the building's construction process, lifespan, maintenance requirements, and joining techniques”. This implies that the materials need be regraded before being utilised again.

4.2.2 Material Database

Except for two individuals who showed some scepticism about its viability in the Nigerian setting, all interviewees enthusiastically responded to the notion of creating and maintaining a materials database. The Nigerian Institute of Architects (NIA) has been discussing creating a material database to offer a quality authentication and dependable suppliers databank. Therefore, this idea is not particularly novel in the building business (P14). An interviewee indicated that he had gone to professional gatherings to push for the creation of building operating manuals and materials databases at the end of every construction project (P02). Another person who participated in the interview felt that the materials database and material lifespan should only be included in the as-built documents that consultants present to clients after a project is completed (P13).

4.2.3 Improved Tools

The use of contemporary equipment for the demolition job may be necessary to improve how structures are handled after they have served their purpose. This is because most structures are now demolished using manual labour (P01). It is also crucial that the government make these instruments inexpensive (15).

4.2.4 Sensitisation and Education

One strategy to enhance demolition techniques is thought to be a greater understanding of best practices for treating structures once they have served their purpose. Included in this should be both general and targeted education for those parties participating directly in demolition activities and the management of recovered items (P02; P12; P16).

On the other hand, it has been suggested by (P04; P15) that including knowledge of sustainable building decommissioning into the curricula of disciplines teaching the built environment in higher education might enhance the practice.

4.2.5 Policies and Legislation

38% of those who participated in the study think that laws and regulations may help to advance the ways in which buildings are managed after the end of their useful lives. “The Government should come up with a law or edict that will guide so that you don't just come demolish” is one of the participants' statements (P04). While “Guidelines for demolishing and the way of disposing waste should be well articulated so that it will help people to be at a safer side when demolishing any building or project” is another participant's statement (P08). Permission to demolish structures should also be subject to the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirement (P15). Three policy-oriented approaches have been found that can enhance the practice of maintaining buildings after their useful lives: comprehensive guidelines, legislative edicts, and EIA.

4.2.5 Demolition Specialisation

Some of the interviewees believed that there were either no specialists or insufficient specialised businesses engaged in building deconstruction (P06; P07; P08; P09; P13; P14). In (P07's) words, this viewpoint was as follows: “It is possible that the value of the salvaged materials may rise due to the emergence of specialists interested in working in this field. This is because they will offer a methodical and meticulous approach to eliminating these elements and suggest potential reuse in lower-grade projects.”.

These interviewees may be referring to specialized agencies that resemble organisations like the European Demolition Association (EDA) and the National Federation of Demolition Contractors (NFDC) in the UK (National Federation of Demolition Contractors, 2015). Professionalisation and specialization are likely to enhance the field of practice (P11).

The findings of this study reveal that the practices associated with an ethno-mimicry approach to buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria are not without challenges. Adopting technologies in the construction industry in task execution remains an issue. Even in biomimicry research, a lack of technology was also identified by [64] as a challenge. There have been several studies on the potential of technology to improve sustainable construction globally [65, 66]. However, the lack of technology and the right equipment in demolition practice in Nigeria is hindering the anticipated growth of the demolition industry. The type of technology and equipment needed for the demolition process are the types that will enable the materials to be removed while leaving the materials in a usable condition for the purpose of minimising damage to the materials.

Furthermore, the study’s findings reveal that illegality in buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria posed a challenge. This was attributed to the fact the demolition task in Nigeria is carried out by actors situated within the informal sector of the economy who operate with no recognised legal framework. While conceding that the "formal" organised sector oversees managing solid waste in economically developed nations, the "informal" recycling industry was acknowledged as being mostly in charge of managing solid waste in developing nations in Asia, Latin America, and Africa [67]. The "informal" players in the system operate either as organized cooperatives or as lone people who offer door-to-door collection services and occasionally collect goods from public landfills, transfer stations, and community trash bins. Therefore, although having been shown to be in many ways consistent with the sustainability agenda, informal methods of buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria nevertheless face legal challenges. The procedure for transferring retrieved materials needs to be managed well, especially since it may or already is leading to issues like conflicts with security personnel, as deduced from this study.

The results of this study suggest that occupational health and safety (OHS) performance in Nigerian demolition projects is similar to that of a related study [68]. With a weak implementation plan, the provisions for occupational health and safety in demolition are poorly integrated. There was apparent low OHS knowledge and compliance among the industry actors. Also, accident victims' care was not adequately provided for, and they are occasionally at the mercy of any project stakeholder's pity. In the worst-case scenario, the victims are left defenceless. However, there is little proof that there is a clear causal link between the use of conventional medicine to treat accidents and a dearth of sufficient medical care infrastructure or awareness.

Even though the participants demonstrated the significance of various laws, such as insurance to OHS, there are no special laws or other regulatory instruments addressing OHS in building or demolition. Any attempt to develop an implementation mechanism would be hampered by the lack of a thorough legislative provision. Therefore, it is not surprising if the implementation plan is found to be ineffective. On the other hand, any implementation plan should place a priority on the culture of maintaining records and data. Participants' replies indicated displeasure with OHS's participation in demolition, and there was a clear need for the government to act.

Other findings by the study as challenges to the practices in buildings’ end-of-life management in Nigeria include public reaction, storage, supervision, regulation, and treatment of hazardous materials. Due to the lack of framework for the demolition industry and the fact that the sector is an informal sector, with the competition to own salvaged items from defunct construction, there is usually theft and unrest. Furthermore, there is the issue of storage. [69] opined that the lack of storage facilities on sites has a serious negative impact on construction sites. This stand has been corroborated by this finding as it has been reported that there have been instances where the demolition debris from a demolished building was needed for the proposed new construction, but there wasn't enough room for storage, leading to protests from the nearby neighbours. Therefore, the debris had to be thrown and repurchased at a later stage of the project. In addition, the importance of supervision has been stressed by [70] or any construction-related works. This is because implementing construction schemes requires maximum supervision to ensure the engagement of the best hands. Building demolition is a frenetic operation that needs competent and committed supervision, especially when the materials need to be reused. Else, the materials will be left in an unusable condition.

The study's findings show that Nigerians view the destruction of building structures as a free-for-all, unregulated sector which necessitates prompt action/intervention. This might take the shape of rules to direct the actions of the specialists engaged or instructions on how to handle the waste materials from demolition operations. This finding is in tandem with the findings of [71, 72] that laws and policies for managing BC&DW can help to improve how buildings are managed at the end of their useful lives. The study reveals that, unfortunately, the workers ignored safety precautions when handling demolition materials. However, there may be a sparse usage of boots, safety helmets, and face masks by actors, as was the case in another study focusing on the OHS in the Nigerian construction industry. According to [68], with a weak implementation plan, the provisions for occupational health and safety in demolition projects appear to be poorly integrated.

However, the study’s findings show that as a measure to respond to the above challenges, there needs to be standardisation, which has the potential to improve the way and manner materials salvaged from decommissioned buildings are used. There are several stakeholders in the demolition industry in Nigeria, and as such, there needs to be a standard of operation. In several nations, there are industry and academic programs for recycling salvaged resources like aggregates in buildings [44, 73]. The building demolition industry in Nigeria might benefit from other countries' experiences. Also revealed by the study is the need for a material database. According to [74], for materials to be reused and recycled successfully, there must be a material database. Other measures revealed by the study include improved tools for demolition process, sensitisation and awareness, policies and regulations, and demolition specialisation. All of these mentioned had earlier been discussed and several studies have stressed their importance in the management of BCDW.

The paper is not without limitations. The study covered the city of Kano, Nigeria utilising a qualitative research design. Furthermore, a total of nineteen (19) interviewees were recruited within the study area. Nevertheless, this does not have influence on the quality of results as data saturation was attained.

This study demonstrated how the unsustainable linear depletion caused by extraction, manufacture, consumption, and disposal as waste at the end of service magnifies the threat of the exhaustion of natural resources. It is therefore crucial to find a solution to the waste produced when buildings are demolished after their useful lives have expired. This is as building construction demolition waste contributes around 30% and 40% respectively of the total waste (solid) generated and has been projected to grow by 2025 as about 2.2billions tonnes of demolition waste is expected to be generated globally if the current trend continues. For this reason, it has become pertinent to study and learn from the wisdom of preindustrial societies on ways to live harmoniously with the earth in a sustainable manner. Amongst the practices of these native societies in Nigeria is trading on salvaged materials from demolished buildings. However, these practices have its challenges as revealed from research. From the perspective of the participants, the challenges facing these native societies in the management of BCDW in Nigeria was identified by the study. The importance of addressing these identified challenges cannot be overemphasized. Furthermore, the study identified measures from the participants perspective to improve the practice of BCDW management in Nigeria. Based on the findings, the study recommends applying the concept of ethno-mimicry to design a sustainable system for buildings’ end-of-life management as opposed to just copying learning from other industries, while also looking at the challenges and possible solutions. Further research could also be conducted to validate the study as the current study employed a controlled sample size in the research design. Furthermore, studies in the future could adopt a mix method approach or even a quantitative approach, and hopefully, could enlarge on the locations.

Ethical Statement

This research was approved by the University of Huddersfield School of Art, Design and Architecture research and ethics committee as part of a PhD research study titled: “Ethnomimicry: the Development of a Conceptual Model of the Nigerian Practice of the End-of-life Management of Buildings”. Student No: U1474321

Informed Consent to Participate

All research participants in this study gave free and informed consent to participate, and all the research invitations, information sheets, and signed consent forms for every participant are in the custody of the primary researcher.

Data Availability Statement

The authors confirm that all data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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No competing interests reported.

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An Ethno-mimicry Approach to Managing Buildings’ End-of-life Construction and Demolition Waste in Nigeria: Militating Factors and Improvement Measures

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Abstract

Purpose

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1.0 Introduction

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Building and Construction Demolition Waste Management

2.2 Building and Construction Demolition Waste Management in Nigeria

2.3 The Role of Ethno-mimicry in Facilitating Sustainable Construction

3.0 Methodology

4.0 Findings

4.1 Challenges

4.1.1 Availability of Technology

4.1.2 Materials Handling Illegality

4.1.3 Law Enforcement Agents Harassment

4.1.4 Occupational Health and Safety

4.1.5 Public Reaction

4.1.6 Storage

4.1.7 Supervision

4.1.8 Regulation

4.1.9 Treatment of Hazardous Materials.

4.2 Measures for Improving Practice

4.2.1 Standardisation

4.2.2 Material Database

4.2.3 Improved Tools

4.2.4 Sensitisation and Education

4.2.5 Policies and Legislation

4.2.5 Demolition Specialisation

5.0 Discussion

6.0 Limitations of the Study

7.0 Conclusions and Recommendation

Declarations

References

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