The Fabrication of Tiles from Sawdust to Achieve Environmental Sustainability

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4655769/v1

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The Fabrication of Tiles from Sawdust to Achieve Environmental Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4655769/v1

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Currently, tiles are manufactured pieces of hardwearing materials such as ceramic, stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass, and tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, or other objects such as tabletops. Sawdust is a byproduct of cutting, grinding, drilling, sanding, or pulverizing wood with a saw or other specialized tools. It is composed of fine particles of wood. Sawdust is available in large quantities from wood crusher units. Research has revealed that, unless sawdust is reprocessed into a particle board, wood briquettes can be used to produce heat for milling operations. Sawdust can collect in piles on landsites and can drain into water and poison aquatic life, thus becoming an environmental hazard. Sawdust can also cause dust explosions, and exposure to sawdust increases the chance of nasal cancer.

This research study showed that the use of sawdust in tile fabrication has a positive impact on the environment. This shows how using sawdust to fabricate tiles can promote environmental sustainability. The study also explored how utilizing sawdust in the manufacturing of tiles can positively affect climate change and increase the use of construction materials.

Sawdust can play a role in fine aggregates, such as the sand used in making tiles. The sand in the percentage portions of the sawdust was partially replaced. There was a total of four mix designs aimed at investigating the effect of partial replacement of sand with sawdust. The replacements ranged from 0 to 15%. The compressive strength, impact strength, tensile strength, and water and fire resistance were tested.

The test results showed that with increasing sawdust content, the compressive and tensile strengths slightly increased. This also resulted in a reduction in the heat transfer of the sawdust tiles. The tiles were determined to be fire resistant and impermeable. The overall physical and mechanical properties of sawdust tiles analyzed for use in construction technology.

This project tends to create employment because people in villages are being paid for collecting sawdust and working in sawdust tile production sites and for mass production in the region where factories are being constructed to make sawdust tiles, and many jobs should be provided. This study therefore recommends that the use of sawdust in tile fabrication should be explored and encouraged for positive environmental impacts. This will help to conserve trees and the ecosystem as a whole and reduce the cost of tiles on the growing market.

Biological sciences/Ecology

Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences

Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences

Physical sciences/Engineering

Physical sciences/Materials science

Tiles

sawdust

cement

environmental sustainability

ecosystem

construction

employment

Currently, the consumption of raw materials by construction industries is increasing every day. This has resulted in a decrease in natural resources and an increase in environmental impacts and CO₂ emissions worldwide. Some materials for construction, such as steel, timber, and concrete, are highly needed (1), (2). When these materials are readily available in quantity in a construction field, the cost of construction is reduced. Daniel, et al. (3) observed that the construction of houses uses a large amount of timber and thus produces wood waste in many forms, such as slabs, off cuts, sawdust, and shavings. Teodora and colleagues (4) explained that sawdust accumulation is a major factor of environmental pollution.

The use of locally available materials involves both structural frame and interior design construction of buildings. The fabrication of tiles from sawdust can help us achieve environmental sustainability. This results in more employment, good construction, affordable housing and a better economy.

Many woods are used during construction activities. This wood comes from trees in the forests. As the trees are endlessly being used, the forests are being depleted daily. It is therefore important to find ways to recycle wood waste to sustain the environment.

The project will create employment for village people who are being paid for collecting saw dust and for mass production in the region where they will be working in factories for making sawdust tiles. They will be employed at every knowledge level. Youths should be trained about sawdust tile production processes and their usage.

1.1. The concrete tile

Concrete tile is a construction material that is a popular tile option for adding value to buildings. These tiles are sometimes called cement roofing tiles. Most of the time, it is composed of cement and sand, and its size differs from that of other types of tiles. Frequently, various dyes are added for coloring (5).

Due to their fluid nature prior to drying, concrete tiles are factory molded into a wide variety of shapes and textures to imitate wood shake shingles, clay tiles, or slate tiles. Concrete tiles are used in roofing, and the material has been gaining traction over the years, especially due to the countless benefits it brings to finishing, practicality, and more.

Compared to ceramic tiles, the water absorption of concrete tiles is one of the main added values and is what is transforming architectural projects. The concrete tile is an element used in construction to cover houses and buildings, protecting the roof. It works in the same way as traditional ceramic tiles. The main difference is concentrated in the origin of its raw material: concrete (6).

An investigation by Mayur and his colleagues on the properties of sawdust concrete as a construction material revealed that the weight of the structure of sawdust concrete is lower than that of existing concrete. Thus, the lessening of lifeless loads carried out in the foundation leads to a higher economy in comparison to that of normal weight concrete. They concluded that we could obtain many benefits from using sawdust concrete. Some of the stated benefits are that sawdust concrete is green, is ecologically pure, controls the interior humidity level, is frost proofing, has favorable thermal and sound proofing properties, is not subject to mold and fungi and does not react with any ingredients of concrete or steel (7).

Currently, tiles are the primary element used to bring building interiors as well as exterior finishing and beauty. Tiles can be manufactured from recycled materials, increasing the eco-friendliness of these components. Construction engineers are attempting to develop innovative technologies and methods to modernize construction.

1.2. Sawdust

Sawdust is a byproduct of cutting, grinding, drilling, sanding, or otherwise pulverizing wood with a saw or other specialized tools (4). It is composed of fine particles of wood. Sawdust is available in large quantities from crusher units. Research has revealed that, unless sawdust is reprocessed into particle boards or wood briquettes or is utilized to produce heat for milling operations, sawdust can be collected in piles on land sites and can leach into water and poison wildlife; thus, it becomes an environmental hazard. Sawdust can also be an issue for dust explosions. It has been proven through human epidemiologic studies that exposure to sawdust increases the chance of nasal cancer (8).

Sawdust is a loose particle or wood chipping material obtained as a waste product from the sawing of timber and furniture. Sawdust disposal is an economically growing problem faced in the wood industry. Large quantities of sawdust are produced annually by sawmills. Without reprocessing sawdust into particle boards, wood briquettes, or heat for milling operations, sawdust can be collected in piles on land sites and can leach into water and poison wildlife; thus, it becomes an environmental hazard (9).

Sawdust can be used as fuel in manufacturing plants or for pulping and can be used in special sawdust furnaces for domestic heating. Sawdust can be used for soaking oil spills. Other research has demonstrated that sawdust can be used as an organic mulch and is very effective at controlling weeds, insulating soil, and conserving soil water. Sawdust and wood chips from some woods, such as walnut and cedar, produce phytotoxic (plant-killing) chemicals and should not be used for mulch or compost. Despite the large-scale application of sawdust, a major problem remains, for which only partial solutions have been developed (10).

It has been proven through human epidemiological studies that breathing a large amount of sawdust increases the chance of nasal cancer. Wood particles are carcinogenic and can lodge in the nasal cavity with repeated exposure to sawdust (11).

In their study, Sri and his colleagues concluded that the strength of blocks/bricks is more than 12.5 MPa, which is required for load-bearing blocks/bricks when the sawdust concrete mix consists of 990 kg/m³ of cement, 141 kg/m³ of fly ash and 2% calcium chloride. The findings of the study revealed that the compressive strength of concrete mixtures made with sawdust is comparable to that of concrete mixtures made with sand as fine aggregates. Thus, the sawdust in this research is used as an alternative to sand as a fine aggregate. Studies have shown that sawdust, a lightweight material, can be used as an aggregate in concrete mixes to produce lightweight concrete (12).

It is necessary to determine the mechanical properties of sawdust for the design of concrete containing sawdust as a replacement for sand. An increase in moisture content increases the pour and merging density. Sawdust was also found to be a strong material with a poor flow ability. The angle of internal friction for the sawdust was also strongly negatively correlated with the moisture content. However, there is no correlation between cohesion and moisture content, while there is a strong correlation between cohesion and consolidation stress.

1.3. Sand

Sand is a vital ingredient of concrete as a fine aggregate. Although sand is an inert material in the concrete mix, its role cannot be neglected. Sand has great functions in concrete manufacturing. Sand plays a role in binding in the concrete mix. This increases the volume and density of cement mortar (13).

1.3.1. Different grading zone values of fine aggregates (sand) per 383

According to IS383-1970 and T-4, fine aggregates can be graded into 4 zones depending upon the percentage of fines retained in each sieve (13). The grading zones for fine aggregates are I, II, III and IV. All grading zones and their recommended values for different sieve sizes are given in Table 1.

Table 1

Different grading zone values of fine aggregates (sand) per 383 (13).
IS Sieve Designation	Percentage Passing For
IS Sieve Designation	Grading Zone I	Grading Zone II	Grading Zone III	Grading Zone IV
10 mm	100	100	100	100
4.75 mm	90–100	90–100	90–100	95–100
2.36 mm	60–95	75–100	85–100	95–100
1.18 mm	30–70	55–90	75–100	90–100
600 microns	15–34	35–59	60–79	80–100
300 microns	5–20	8–30	12–40	15–50
150 microns	0–10	0–10	0–10	0–15

The methods applied in this study were theoretical and scientific. The raw materials for sawdust tile fabrication are cement, sand, sawdust, powder and water. After material identification, material preparation was carried out, a casting process followed, and finally, the mechanical properties of the sawdust tile were tested (Fig. 1). The critical properties and specifications of the sawdust tile are discussed.

2.1. Materials identification

This step is necessary for determining the function, cost, availability and properties of materials to be used to make sawdust tiles. Materials were identified as per related literature.

2.1.1. Cement

SUREBUILD 42.5 N was selected because it is a premium multipurpose cement that is applied for concrete, mortar, plaster, paving, precast products, grouts, shotcrete, and soil stabilization (14).

2.1.2. Sand

The sand used in this work is locally available and is in conformity with grading zone II and zone III as per IS: 383–1970. The mechanical properties of the sand were determined based on the IS: 2386 − 1963 (15)

2.1.3. Water

The water used in this work was clean portable water. It was from a tap, which was free from salt and conformed to the requirements of ISO 456–2000.

2.1.4. Sawdust

The sawdust used in this study was collected from Karongi Agakiriro canter. The sawdust particles were passed through a 0.6 mm sieve, and the resulting particles were almost identical to the fine aggregates.

2.1.5. Concrete Dyes

The coloring of sawdust tile influences the aesthetic quality of the tile. According to Mike Miller, dye powder is mixed with solvent to produce a colored solution. The concrete was mixed with water, and therefore, some manufactured sawdust tiles were colored. The method for coloring concrete involves adding dye to water before mixing it with other components (16).

2.2. Sawdust tile fabrication

The fabrication of sawdust tile requires different methods. During the mixing process, four different portions of sawdust were used to replace sand by volume. The percentages of the portions taken were 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% sawdust. The effect of the sawdust content in the sawdust tiles was analyzed. The mixing proportion was calculated by using ISO: 10262:2009 (15). A proportion of 1:2 (1 portion of cement and 2 portions of sand including sawdust) and a constant water/cement ratio of 0.5 were selected.

Cement, sand, sawdust and potable water were mixed to form cement mortar. Cement mortar was cast in different molds with dimensions of 50 mm ×30 mm × 3 mm and 20 mm ×10 mm × 3 mm. The mixing process was carried out at room temperature (25°C). To have a proper tile, compaction of the mixture is necessary. After the cement mortar was made, it was poured into the mold. The compaction was performed for three minutes.

After the casting process, the cubic cement mortar hardened under the sun for a period of three weeks. This helps to reach the required strength before further testing. The proportions of the constituent materials used for sawdust tile by volume are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Proportion of mix design of materials by volume
Mix Design	Composition	W/C	Cement	Fine Aggregate (Sand)	Sawdust
M1	0% of sand replaced with Sand with Sawdust	0.5	1	2	0
M2	5% of sand replaced with Sand with Sawdust	0.5	1	1.9	0.1
M3	10% of sand replaced with Sand with Sawdust	0.5	1	1.8	0.2
M4	15% of sand replaced with Sand with Sawdust	0.5	1	1.7	0.3

Figure 2 shows the two different local wooden molds that were used to cast the sawdust tiles. Figure 3 shows the sawdust tile fabricated in this study.

Different types of tests were conducted to ensure the functionality of the sawdust tile. Tests are crucial for analyzing the physical appearance of sawdust tile, heat resistance, sun exposure, humidity resistance and sawdust tile strength. The tests included compression tests, tensile stress tests, water resistance tests, fire resistance tests, heat resistance tests and impact tests.

3.1. Compressive strength test

The soft sawdust tile was subjected to compressive force to determine the maximum compressive strength of the sawdust tile (Table 3–6).

Table 3

Compression test for mix design M2
Time in seconds	Load (kN)
0	2
40	500
80	1000
120	1200
136	1475
140	1400

Table 4

Compression test for mix design M3
Time in seconds	Load (kN)
0	2
40	620
80	1232
120	1422
150	1551
155	1500

Table 5

Compression test for mix design M4
Time in seconds	Load (kN)
0	2
40	650
80	1310
120	1608
166	1871
170	1850

Table 6

Compression test for the normal ceramic tile
Time in seconds	Load (kN)
0	18
20	410
60	920
80	1300
90	1560
100	1540

Compression tests show that sawdust M4 is strong, up to 1871 kN, and it can break when it is exposed to successive increasing loads for 166 seconds (Table 5). The normal ceramic tile breaks at 1560 kN for 90 seconds (Table 6; Fig. 4).

3.2. Water resistance test

After leaving the sawdust tile in water for one week, there was a slight increase in the sawdust strength. The compressive and tensile strengths increased.

After the tiles are poured into the water for many hours, the strength of the tile increases; thus, the strength increases as the wetting time increases (Fig. 5).

3.3. The results of testing the sawdust tile into fire

After fire testing, the sawdust tiles were found to be fire resistant and noncombustible. They do not catch fire, nor do they produce off toxic fumes that can affect breathing when exposed to fire. From sawdust tile fire testing, it is obvious that the use of sawdust tile is a safe and simple approach for both floor and wall areas.

3.4. The results of heat testing of the sawdust tile

A test method for determining the resistance of sawdust tile to heat was developed. The sawdust tile was placed in an oven for 2 hours. The heat resistance was determined by cycling the sample between 45°C and 135°C. Defects were assessed by viewing the sawdust tiles from a defined distance at a defined light intensity with the naked eye. The temperature of the sawdust tile was 1450°C. Therefore, during construction, this sawdust tile is safe when it is attached to a surface that is not a combustible material.

3.5. The impact resistance of sawdust tile.

The most common cause of fracture damage is where the tiles or areas of tile are unsupported or have soft or friable underlying layers near the tiles.

Floors are more prone than walls to impact damage due to falling objects and the point-load characteristics of some footwear.

A 19 mm diameter steel ball was dropped on sawdust tile. It was from a height of 1 meter. The idea behind the chosen heights was not to achieve fine discrimination between different builds but to ensure that each tile mix design was strong enough for service conditions considered to be appropriate for the particular application. All sawdust tiles in this standard were absorbent body glazed tiles so that the distinction made only on the basis of mix design was valid (Table 7).

Table 7

Impact resistance for different sawdust tile mix designs
Mix Design	Height from which steel ball is dropped (mm)	Results
M1	127	No damage
M2	229	No damage
M3	330	No damage
M4	660	No damage

Fixed floor tiles, especially those with more porous bodies, are prone to damage from pointed objects, whereas unglazed vitrified floor tiles are rarely damaged in this way.

3.6. Tensile strength test of the sawdust tile

Table 8

Tensile strength for different mix designs of sawdust tile
Mix Design	Tensile strength (kN)	Results
M1	325	No damage
M2	721	No damage
M3	1165	No damage
M4	1628	No damage

As the content of sawdust increases, the tiles withstand greater loads, whether static or impact, before fracture (Table 8). For normal duty requirements at construction sites, it is better to maintain a tolerable portion of sawdust to prevent sawdust tile defects.

4.1. Conclusion

Sawdust can play a role in fine aggregates, such as the sand used in making tiles. In this research, sawdust was partially used to replace sand for fabricating tiles. These tiles are referred to as sawdust tiles because they differ from existing tiles. Four mix designs were used to investigate the effect of partial replacement of sand with sawdust. The percentages were 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%, respectively, of the sawdust used for sand replacement. The effect of the sawdust content in the sawdust tiles was analyzed. A proportion of 1:2 (1 portion of cement and 2 portions of sand including sawdust) and a constant water/cement ratio of 0.5 were applied. The mixture was exposed to the sun for three weeks, after which the sawdust was dry and hardened.

The compressive strength, impact strength, tensile strength, and water and fire resistance were tested. The results obtained from the experiment show that with increasing sawdust content, the compressive and tensile strengths slightly increased. The results also showed that there was a slight reduction in the heat transfer of the sawdust tiles. The tiles were determined to be fire resistant and impermeable. Future studies should analyze how sawdust tiles provide other very effective properties, such as sound and thermal insulation and acoustic properties.

4.2. Findings in relation to the sub-Theme

The paper is under the main Theme of the 19th ILO Regional Seminar, which is “Promoting skills and productive (decent) jobs for our common better future”, and it is within the sub-Theme of “Innovations in employment intensive technology, approach and work methods relating to the development of rural and urban infrastructure”. It also covers the topic “Environmental stewardship, ecosystem restoration and climate-proofing of public assets to enhance climate change and adaptation”.

As discussed in this paper, the fabrication of tiles from sawdust promotes employment for local people, as they are being paid for collecting sawdust and working in sawdust tile production processes; furthermore, for mass production in the region, factories should be constructed to make sawdust tiles. This will create jobs for regional and international people in factories, and as a result, construction materials will become increasingly available and create jobs at different construction sites.

The use of sawdust in the production of tiles will overcome rapid climate change, which is increasing daily. Sawdust will no longer cause piles to form on landsites and will not drain into water or poison aquatic life.

The application of sawdust to tiles decreases the chance of nasal cancer and thus leads to environmental sustainability where our ecosystem can be restored over time.

4.3. Recommendations

Sawdust should be considered a very useful material for enhancing environmental sustainability. It is possible to recycle sawdust and use it in the fabrication of tiles for construction purposes.

The use of sawdust in the fabrication of tiles should be explored, and employment creativity and positive environmental adaptability should be encouraged. This will help to conserve forest trees and the ecosystem as a whole and reduce the cost of tiles on the fast-growing market. Sawdust will therefore no longer be a waste material but rather an industrial material of use to sustain our environment.

For each country, it is recommended that sawdust be used as a partial replacement for sand in the fabrication of tiles and other concrete materials.

Other practitioners should perform in-depth experimental analyses to determine whether waste materials other than sawdust can be used to fabricate tiles for environmental stewardship, ecosystem restoration and climate-proofing of public assets to enhance climate change and adaptation.

Acknowledgments

The authors of this study are grateful to RP-IPRC Karongi for providing access to the workshops and other required utilities.

Many thanks to INGABIRE Dominique, the Principal of IPRC Karongi and other staff for the guidance provided during the entire period of development of this research.

Author contributions

N.J.M.V., conceptualization, experimentation, and writing of the manuscript. I.S., refining, reviewing, editing, and proofreading of the manuscript, and correspondence.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Data Availability

The Datasets used or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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No competing interests reported.

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You are reading this latest preprint version

The Fabrication of Tiles from Sawdust to Achieve Environmental Sustainability

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. The concrete tile

1.2. Sawdust

1.3. Sand

1.3.1. Different grading zone values of fine aggregates (sand) per 383

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Materials identification

2.1.1. Cement

2.1.2. Sand

2.1.3. Water

2.1.4. Sawdust

2.1.5. Concrete Dyes

2.2. Sawdust tile fabrication

3. TESTING OF FABRICATED SAWDUST TILES AND DISCUSSIONS

3.1. Compressive strength test

3.2. Water resistance test

3.3. The results of testing the sawdust tile into fire

3.4. The results of heat testing of the sawdust tile

3.5. The impact resistance of sawdust tile.

3.6. Tensile strength test of the sawdust tile

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1. Conclusion

4.2. Findings in relation to the sub-Theme

4.3. Recommendations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

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