Apocynin, a natural acetophenone suppresses cell proliferation, migration and induces cell cycle arrest, apoptosis in ovarian carcinoma cell line A2780

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4685264/v1

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Apocynin, a natural acetophenone suppresses cell proliferation, migration and induces cell cycle arrest, apoptosis in ovarian carcinoma cell line A2780

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4685264/v1

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In this study, the ameliorative effects of apocynin against ovarian cancer cell proliferation, migration, and induction of apoptosis were studied in vitro. A2780 human ovarian carcinoma cells and Vero normal epithelial cells were treated with apocynin and subjected to cytotoxicity assays. Lipid peroxidation and antioxidant status were quantified in apocynin-treated A2780 cells to assess the anticancer effect of apocynin. Staining techniques with DCFH-DA, Rhodamine-123, and AO/EtBr were done to analyze the ROS-induced apoptosis in A2780 cells. A wound scratch assay was performed to examine the effect of apocynin on cell migration. Flow cytometric analysis was done to analyze cell cycle arrest in apocynin-treated A2780 cells. To confirm the apoptosis in apocynin-treated cells, the apoptotic proteins were quantified using kits. Apocynin treatment significantly inhibited growth andpromoted oxidative stress and apoptosis in A2780 cells. The results of fluorescent staining assays clearly state that apocynin increases ROS levels and thereby induces lipid peroxidation, which leads to cell death. Apocynin treatment caused cell cycle arrest and promoted apoptosis in A2780 cells, which were confirmed by the flow cytometry results and an increase in caspases, bax, and a decrease in bcl2 levels, respectively. Apocynin treatment also inhibited cell migration, which was evidenced by our wound scratch assay. Overall, our findings confirm that apocynin significantly inhibits cell proliferation, cell migration, and induced apoptosis in ovarian cancer A2780 cells.

Ovarian cancer

A2780 cells

Apocynin

Cell migration

Cell cycle arrest

Apoptosis

Ovarian cancer is a serious type of cancer that was mostly diagnosed during the advanced stage. Among gynecological-related malignancies, ovarian cancer is a severe disease and the most frequently diagnosed type of cancer in females [1–4]. The Global Ovarian Cancer Charter reported that globally in 2020, about 3.1 lakh women were estimated to be diagnosed with ovarian cancer, and about 2 lakh mortalities were reported due to ovarian cancer [5]. Women in the post-menopause period have a higher incidence of ovarian cancer compared to other females[6]. The symptoms are imprecise, such as bloating, abdominal pain, feeling satiety, and urgency in urination [7, 8]. Since the symptoms are vague, 70% of ovarian cancer patients were diagnosed at an advanced stage [9]. The tumors that occurs in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and primary peritoneal cavity are collectively named ovarian cancer. 90% of ovarian cancer arises from the ovarian epithelial cells, which is high-grade serous ovarian cancer [10].

Other than age, family history, hormonal and reproductive disorders, race, and lifestyle also determine the occurrence of ovarian cancer [11, 12]. Genetic mutations in BRCA1, BRCA2, and TP53 were exhibited in 10–15% of ovarian cancer patients [13]. Since the symptoms are common and there are no particular screening tests for ovarian cancer, treating it is a greater task. Surgery followed by chemotherapy used to be the first-line treatment given to patients diagnosed with ovarian cancer [14, 15]. Due to intra-tumor heterogeneity, high-grade serous ovarian cancer shows resistance to chemotherapy drugs such as paclitaxel, carboplatin, olaprib,etc. [16]. If diagnosed at the early stage, the five-year survival rate of ovarian cancer is about 93%, whereas at the advanced stage, due to chemotherapy resistance the five-year survival rate is 29% [17]. Since ovarian cancer is mostly diagnosed at the advanced stage, an effective drug is needed today to treat it.

Cancer chemotherapy is staged into three categories based on the patient’s risk and disease stage. Primary chemotherapy is a preventive measure given to the high-risk population with a genetic predisposition to cancer. Secondary chemotherapy treatment was given to inhibit the progression of cancer in patients at an early stage. Tertiary chemotherapy was given to the patients to prevent cancer relapse [18, 19]. Phytochemicals play a substantial role in providing primary chemotherapy,and they are also reported to render secondary and tertiary chemotherapy [20]. Apocynin, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-acetophenone, is a polyphenolic compound present in extracts of Picrorhizakurroa andApocynumcannabinum used to treat cardiac, hepatic, respiratory, and rheumatoid illnesses in Ayurveda treatment [21–23]. Apocynin is a potent NADPH oxidase inhibitor that provides anti-inflammatory [24], neuroprotective [25], and anti-ageing effects [26]. Apocynin has been reported to suppress cancer proliferation in in vitro and animal models[27–28].The ameliorative effect of apocynin on most lethal cancers, like ovarian cancer,has not yet been elucidated.In this study, we analyzed the anticancer effect of apocynin on ovarian cancer cell proliferation and migration in an in vitro model.

Apocynin, doxorubicin, and the reagents MTT and DMSO were procured from Sigma Aldrich, USA. Cell culture medium (DMEM, RPMI-1640), culture reagents, antibiotic-anitmycotic solutions, and Trypsin EDTA were purchased from ThermoFischer Scientific, USA. Staining kits DCFH-DA, Acridine Orange, Ethidium Bromide, and Rhodamine 123 were also procured from Sigma Aldrich, USA. Only analytical-grade chemicals and reagents were used for the experiments.

Cell line culture

Human ovarian carcinoma A2780 cells and non-malignant Vero cells were purchased from ATCC, USA. The cells were examined for contamination and cell growth under a light microscope before incubating in a CO2 incubator. The medium was replaced with 10% FBS-supplemented RPMI-1640 and incubated for 24h at 37ºC in a 5% CO2 incubator. The cells were trypsinized with Trypsin-EDTA and subcultured for further experiments.

Cytotoxicity analysis of apocynin

The cytotoxicity effect of apocynin was examined with the ovarian carcinoma A2780 human cell line and normal epithelial Vero cell line. A2780 cell lines were cultured in 10% FBS-supplemented RPMI-1640 medium, whereas Vero cells were cultured in DMEM medium. Both cells were treated with different concentrations of apocynin ranging from 0–15 µM. The drug-treated cells were incubated for 24h at 37ºC in a 5%CO2 incubator and then subjected to MTT analysis. The cells were then treated with 5mg/ml of freshly prepared MTT solution and incubated for 3h at 37ºC in a 5%CO2 incubator. The formazan crystals formed due to the cleavage of MTT by viable cells were measured by dissolving the crystals with DMSO. The final absorbance of the solution was measured at 540nm. The experiments were performed in triplicate, and the percentage of cell viability with different dosages of apocynin was calculated. The IC50 value was calculated, and the dose was used for the analysis of further experiments.

Assessment of antioxidant property of apocynin

TBARS assay

Lipid peroxidation in cells induced by oxidative stress was quantified by measuring the final end product, TBARS. A2780 ovarian carcinoma cells were treated with 7.5µM of apocynin and 2µg of the standard drug doxorubicin for 24h and then subjected to TBARS quantification. TBARS were quantified using the MDA assay kit (ab233471), purchased from Abcam, USA. The final reaction mixture was incubated at room temperature for 45 minutes. The end red product formed due to the reaction of thiobarbituric acid and malondialdehyde was measured at 695nm.

Superoxide dismutase assay

The antioxidant SOD levels in apocynin-treated A2780 cells were measured with a superoxide dismutase kit procured from Sigma Aldrich, USA. WST-1, upon reduction with superoxide anion, forms formazan dye, whereas the rate of reduction with superoxide anion is linear to xanthine oxidase activity, which is inhibited by SOD. Hence, the SOD inhibition activity was measured by incubating the final mixture at 37ºC for 20min and then measured at 450nm.

Glutathione assay

Glutathione levels in apocynin- and doxorubicin-treated A2780 cells were quantified using a commercially available colorimetric kit procured from ThermoFischer Scientific, USA. The assay was performed according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. The final absorbance was measured at 405nm.

DCFH-DA staining

Apocynin treated A2780 cells were subjected to 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) staining to quantify the reactive oxygen species generated. A2780 cells were treated for 24h with 7.5µM apocynin, and as a positive control a set of cells were treated with 2µg of the standard anticancer drug doxorubicin. The control and drug-treated cells were stained with DCFDA/H2DCFDA (Cellular ROS Assay Kit, Abcam, USA). The cells were viewed under a fluorescent microscope, and the fluorescence intensity was quantified with ImageJ software.

Rhodamine 123 staining

Rhodamine 123 staining was performed on apocynin-treated A2780 cells to analyze the mitochondrial membrane potential of the cells. A2780 cells were treated with apocynin for 24h and then subjected to rhodamine 123 staining. The drug-treated cells were washed with PBS and stained with rhodamine 123 for 30 min in the dark. The cells were then viewed undera fluorescent microscope, and the intensity of fluorescence was quantified with ImageJ software.

AO/EtBr staining

A dual staining technique with acridine orange and ethidium bromide was used to analyze the percentage of live and dead cells after apocynin treatment. A2780 cells were treated with 7.5µM of apocynin and 2µg of doxorubicin for 24h. Then the cells were stained with a cocktail mixture of AO and EtBr which was prepared in an equal ratio. The stained cells were incubated in the dark for 5min and then viewed under a fluorescent microscope. The fluorescence intensity was quantified with ImageJ software to assess the percentage of live and dead cells.

Wound scratch assay

A2780 cells were cultured on 6-wellplate and upon attaining 100% confluency, the cells were scratched horizontally with the tip of a sterile micropipette at the center of the wells to generate a wound on the cultured cells. The cells were then treated with 7.5µM of apocynin and 2µg of doxorubicin and incubated for 24h. The cells were then viewed under a microscope to assess the cell migration of control and drug-treated cells.

Cell cycle analysis

Annexin V/PI flow cytometry analysis was done to analyze the apocynin-induced apoptosis in ovarian carcinoma A2780 cells. The cells were treated with 7.5µM of apocynin and 2µg of doxorubicin and incubated for 24h. The cells were harvested and subjected to ethanol fixing. The ethanol-fixed cells were stained with a propidium iodide solution for 30min and then scanned with FACSCanto II and BD FACSDiva software.

Assessment of apoptotic markers

Ovarian carcinoma A2780 cells were treated with apocynin and doxorubicin for 24h and subjected to quantification of caspase 3, caspase 9, bax, and bcl2 using a commercially available ELISA kit from Abcam USA. The assay was done as per the guidelines provided in the kit, and the levels were calculated using the standard curve plot.

Statistical Analysis

All the results were presented as the mean value ± SEM of three independent observations done in triplicate. A one way analysis of variance followed by a Student’s t test was performed to analyze the statistical significance of the data. Statistical significance was considered to be with a difference p value of 0.05.

Apocynin significantly induced cytotoxic effect in A2780 cells

Figure 1 depicts the results of the MTT assay performed with A2780 human ovarian cancer cells and Vero normal epithelial cells treated with different concentrations of apocynin. Apocynin significantly induced cell death in A2780 cells, whereas only a minimal percentage of cell death was reported in normal Vero cells. The minimal concentration of 1µM apocynin treatment showed 23 ± 0.04% of cell death, whereas the highest concentration of 15µM apocynin treatment showed 85 ± 0.08% of cell death in A2780 cells. The IC50 value of apocynin for A2780 cells was obtained at a concentration of 7.5µM. In Vero cells, even the highest concentration (15µM) apocynin treatment showed only 10.2 ± 0.09% cell death.

Apocynin decreased antioxidant levels in A2780 cells

Antioxidants are prime players in cell death and proliferation; excess synthesis of antioxidants leads to uncontrolled proliferation of cells. Apocynin treatment significantly decreased the levels of enzymatic antioxidant SOD to 27 ± 0.09 units/mg protein, whereas it was 44 ± 0.2 units/mg protein in control cells. It also decreased the levels of the non-enzymatic antioxidant glutathione to 21 ± 0.05 units/mg protein, whereas it was 37 ± 0.09 units/mg protein in control cells. Apocynin treatment significantly increased the lipid peroxidation by 32 ± 0.08nmol/mg protein, whereas it was less than 1 nmol/mg protein in control cells (Fig. 2).

Apocynin increased reactive oxygen species in A2780 cells

Intracellular reactive oxygen species synthesized by apocynin in A2780 cells were quantified with fluorescent DHCF-DA stain, and the results are depicted in Fig. 3. Apocynin significantly increased the levels of ROS in A2780 cells, which was evidenced by a 38 ± 2% fluorescent intensity compared to the control untreated cells. Standard drug doxorubicin treatment has shown a significantly increased fluorescent intensity of 64 ± 1.8%.

Apocynin decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in A2780 cells

Figure 4 illustrates the levels of mitochondrial membrane potential in control, apocynin-, and doxorubicin-treated A2780 cells. Apocynin treatment significantly decreased MMP levels in A2780 cells compared to the control cells. Compared to doxorubicin, the fluorescent intensity increased in apocynin-treated cells.

Apocynin induced apoptosis in A2780 cells

The induction of apoptosis in A2780 cells by apocynin was estimated with the dual staining technique, and the results are represented in Fig. 5. Control cells showed increased green fluorescence, indicating the presence of live cells, whereas the apocynin-treated cells showed increased levels of yellowish-orange fluorescence, indicating early apoptotic cells. Compared to doxorubicin, apocynin shows decreased levels of reddish-orange fluorescence, which indicates late apoptotic cells. Apocynin treatment induced 34 ± 2% cell death in A2780 cells.

Apocynin inhibited cell migration in A2780 cells

Figure 6 represents the results of the wound scratch assay performed on control and apocynin-treated cells. Apocynin treatment effectively inhibited the migration of A2780 cells compared to the control. It was evident from our microscopic image that only a few cells were observed in the scratched site of apocynin-treated cells, whereas numerous cells can be seen in the scratched site of control cells.

Apocynin inhibits cell proliferation in A2780 cells

Figure 7 represents the flow cytometric analysis was done in control. Apocynin and doxorubicin treated cells to analyze the effect of drugs on cell proliferation. Apocynin treatment retained the cells in G0 andG1, compared to the control cells.A decrease in cells with S-phase and G2-phase was observed in the apocynin-treated cells. Doxorubicin significantly decreased the S-phase and G2 phase cells compared to the control and the apocynin-treated cells.

Apocynin stimulates apoptotic protein synthesis in A2780 cells

Figure 8 illustrates the levels of apoptotic proteins Caspase 3, Caspase 9, Bcl2, and Baxin apocynin-treated A2780 cells. Apocynin treatment significantly increased the levels of both caspases 3 and 9 in A2780 cells. It significantly decreased the levels of the antiapototic protein Bcl2 and increased the proapoptoticBax levels in A2780 cells.

Ovarian cancer remains the most common cause of gynecological-related mortalities in post-menopausal women. 75% of ovarian cancers were diagnosed at the advanced stage. Debulking surgery and platinum-based chemotherapy are the first lines of treatment provided to ovarian cancer patients [29, 30]. A combination of platinum, along with paclitaxel, olaprib, bevacizumab, and niraparib, are some of the drugs prescribed for treating ovarian cancer. In the initial stage, the patient responds to these drugs, whereas later, due to platinum resistance, 80% of the patients are prone to relapses of cancer, and their survival is questionable [31]. At present, targeted therapies are the new hope for treating ovarian cancer, but the recurrence rate of cancer is still in considerable numbers [32].

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX) is an enzyme with multiple subunits expressed in various tissues throughout the body. The prime function of NOX is to catalyze the generation of free radicals to facilitate adaptive immunity [33–35]. NOX were classified into two categories based on their activity: phagocyte-derived and non-phagocyte-derived NADPH oxidase. Overexpression of non-phagocytotic-derived NADPH oxidase, specifically the NOX-1 subtype, was observed in various cancer cells [36–38]. Ovarian cancer cells are also reported to overexpress NOX-1; hence, inhibiting NOX-1 may suppress cancer cell proliferation [39]. Apocynin, a NOX inhibitor, had been reported to suppress intestinal tumorigenesis in obese mice [40], prostate cancer [41, 42], breast cancer [43], and bladder cancer [44]. In this study, we investigated the anticancer effect of apocycin against ovarian cancer cells and normal epithelial cells. Apocynin treatment significantly inhibited the cell proliferation of ovarian cancer cells (A2780), whereas a only minimal percentage of cell death was observed in normal epithelial vero cells. This confirms the targeted cell toxicity of apocynin.

Oxidative stress created due to a reactive oxygen species imbalance imparts a dual response in cells. At the physiological level, ROS is the prime signaling pathway that regulates the growth, proliferation, metabolism, and apoptosis of cells [45, 46], whereas excessive generation of ROS during pathogenic conditions hinders normal cellular functions [47, 48]. Generation and inhibition of these reactive oxygen species play a vital role in treating various inflammatory diseases, including cancer [49, 50]. Induction of ROS generation in ovarian cancer is proposed to render an anticancer effect by causing membrane lipid peroxidation, altering the genetic material, and inducing apoptosis in cancer cells [51]. Our study also correlated with the previous findings that apocynin treatment significantly increased lipid peroxidation in the A2780 cells via decreasing the enzymatic antioxidant superoxide and the non-enzymatic antioxidant glutathione levels, thereby causing apoptosis.

Further, to confirm the apocynin-induced free radical generation-mediated apoptosis in A2780 cells, the apocynin-treated cells were stained with DCHF-DA stain, Rhodamine 123, and AO/EtBr stain. Our staining proves apocynin treatment significantly increased reactive oxygen species generation, thereby decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential and leading to cellular apoptosis. The mitochondrial disruption triggers the apoptotic proteins, both the pro-apoptotic proteins Bid, Bax, andcaspases, and the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2. The anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 prevents the mitochondrial release of apoptosis-inducing factors and also caspase activities. Hence, targeting Bcl2 may promote apoptosis in cancer cells [52]. In our study, apocynin treatment significantly decreased the levels of Bcl2 protein and also increased the levels of pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and caspases. The increased cell death observed in AO/EtBr-stained apocynin-treated A2780 cells may be due to the increase in the pro-apoptotic protein and the decrease in the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 levels.

Anti-cancer treatment disrupts the homeostasis of the cells by generating reactive oxygen species, thereby damaging the nuclear content [53, 54]. The oxidative stress created causes a damaged DNA response, which shifts the cells to cell cycle arrest and eventually leads to apoptosis [55]. Our flow cytometric analysis of apocynin-treated cells confirmed the cell cycle arrest in the A2780 cell. Apocynin treatment retained an increased number of A2780 cells in the G0/G1phase, and a decreased number of cells were observed in the S and G2/M phases compared to the control cells. Apart from inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis, apocynin treatment also inhibited cell migration of A2780, as evidenced by our wound scratch assay.

Apocynin, a natural acetophenone, was examined for its anticancer effect against ovarian carcinoma A2780 cells. Apocynin significantly inhibited the cell proliferation of ovarian carcinoma A2780 cells, and a minimal cytotoxic effect was observed in normal epithelial verocells. Apocynin treatment significantly generated ROS and decreased antioxidant levels in A2780, which in turn induced cell cycle arrest and eventually apoptosis in A2780. It also potently inhibited the cell migration property of A2780. All together, our results prove apocynin is a potent anticancer agent that effectively induces apoptosis in in vitro conditions. Further studies may be conducted to formulate apocynin as a drug to treat ovarian cancer.

Ethical approval and consent to participate:

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Consent for publication:

We consent to the publication of the article.

Author Contribution:

Qian Zhu, Dongmei Zhou: Conceptualization, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Ke Wang, Xuyuan Tang: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Yanhong Huang: Validation, Writing – review & editing.

Funding

Xi'an International Medical Center Hospital, Youth project Funding number 2020QN010.

Competing interest:

The authors declare no competing of interests.

Availability of Data and Materials:

All data analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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30 Jul, 2024
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Apocynin, a natural acetophenone suppresses cell proliferation, migration and induces cell cycle arrest, apoptosis in ovarian carcinoma cell line A2780

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Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Materials and methods

Cell line culture

Cytotoxicity analysis of apocynin

Assessment of antioxidant property of apocynin

TBARS assay

Superoxide dismutase assay

Glutathione assay

DCFH-DA staining

Rhodamine 123 staining

AO/EtBr staining

Wound scratch assay

Cell cycle analysis

Assessment of apoptotic markers

Statistical Analysis

Results

Apocynin significantly induced cytotoxic effect in A2780 cells

Apocynin decreased antioxidant levels in A2780 cells

Apocynin increased reactive oxygen species in A2780 cells

Apocynin decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in A2780 cells

Apocynin induced apoptosis in A2780 cells

Apocynin inhibited cell migration in A2780 cells

Apocynin inhibits cell proliferation in A2780 cells

Apocynin stimulates apoptotic protein synthesis in A2780 cells

Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1