Alcoholic Drinking Practices During the Late Neolithic Longshan Culture in the Central Plains, North China

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4694226/v1

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Alcoholic Drinking Practices During the Late Neolithic Longshan Culture in the Central Plains, North China

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4694226/v1

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Neolithic China witnessed a major sociopolitical transition during the third millennium BC in the Yellow River valley. One notable development was the exchange and dispersal of objects associated with ritual activities and ideology at an interregional level. This is exemplified by diverse pottery types linked to fermented beverages discovered at many walled regional centers of the late Longshan culture. To delve into the drinking practices intertwined with ritualistic activities, we undertook a comprehensive examination of microfossil remains (starch, phytolith, and fungi) on pottery vessels excavated from the Pingliangtai site, a walled settlement in eastern Henan (ca. 2300 − 2000 cal. BC). Our analyses revealed the functions of diverse vessel types, demonstrating that most vessel forms were associated with the production and consumption of fermented alcoholic beverages. The fermentation method involved the use of a qu starter compound containing mainly Monascus mold, yeast, and cereals to brew cereal-based beer. The drinking rituals involved several sequential steps, from heating and pouring, to serving individualized drinks to the living and deities. This form of ritual feasting emphasized individual status, differing sharply from the group drinking tradition of the previous local Yangshao culture. This practice originated in the east coast region and dispersed to the Central Plains as a component of the regional interaction sphere. This research provides fresh insights into the functionality of pottery and the significance of alcohol-related rituals as societies evolved towards greater complexity and stratification, setting the stage for the emergence of early dynastic states in the Central Plains.

Pingliangtai

microfossil analysis

qu starter

alcohol fermentation

pottery vessels

interregional interactions

Neolithic North China witnessed a major sociopolitical transition during the third millennium BC, characterized by three significant changes in archaeological material culture: (1) The emergence of multiple walled enclosures clustered in several regions, such as the Loess Plateau highlands in the northwest, the Central Plains in the middle, and the Haidai region in the east. These walled settlements often exhibit relatively higher levels of complexity in material culture and social organization than smaller villages, likely playing central roles at the regional level. (2) Archaeological remains transitioned from the Yangshao culture to the Longshan culture, especially represented by changes in ceramic styles (Liu and Chen 2012); and among the new pottery types, elaborately made vessels likely used for drinking alcohol tend to be found in higher concentrations at regional centers, suggesting that new forms of feasting practices, for integrative or competitive purposes (Underhill 2018). (3) Regional interactions became intensified, characterized by the exchange and dispersal of objects associated with ritual activities and ideology, a phenomenon often referred to as the “interaction sphere” (Chang 1986:234–294; Li 2015). These changes collectively set the foundation for the emergence of the first Bronze Age state-level society of the Erlitou culture (ca. 1900/1800 − 1500 cal. BC) in the Central Plains. In this study, the term Central Plains refers to a geographic region in today’s Henan province.

Under this broad historical background, it is crucial to understand the human activities behind the material changes, which is the aim of this paper. We particularly focus on ritual activities involving alcohol consumption at the Pingliangtai site, a walled settlement of the late Longshan culture in the Central Plains (ca. 2300 − 2100 cal. BC) (Fig. 1). We investigate foodways through microfossil analysis of ceramic vessels, reconstruct alcohol-related ritual feasting behaviors, and discuss the social changes influenced by regional interactions.

The Pingliangtai site (over 5 ha) in present-day Zhoukou City, Henan Province, is situated in the Yellow River floodplain area (Fig. 1). Historical texts indicate that this region was a convergence point for social interactions between the prehistoric Huaxia and Dongyi groups, with the corresponding archaeological culture designated as the Zaolütai variant of the Longshan culture during the third millennium BC (Cao and Ma 1983; Cao et al. 2017). Pingliangtai stands as the sole identified walled site of this variant and likely functioned as one of the regional centers during this era (Li 1983; Dong 2000; Jin 2006).

From 1979 to 2019, extensive surveys and excavations have unearthed a plethora of artifacts and features. Enclosed by rammed earth walls and expansive moats, the site's narrow gates, flanked by guardhouses, attest to its formidable defensive design. Within the confines, a diverse array of remnants has emerged, including well-arranged house foundations, burial grounds, drainage systems, pottery kilns, elaborately adorned pottery vessels, fragments of jade ornaments, and copper smelting residues (Fig. 2:A). These discoveries collectively depict a structured and intricate living environment likely associated with a complex social organization (Cao and Ma 1983; Cao et al. 2016; Qin and Cao 2020; Li et al. 2023).

The study of macrobotanical remains from Pingliangtai suggests that most plant seeds are domesticated crops, notably with foxtail millet (Setaria italica) being the most prevalent, followed by broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum). Conversely, rice (Oryza sp.), wheat (Triticum sp.), and soybeans (Glycine max) are encountered less frequently. These remains indicate a predominantly dry-land agricultural system commonly practiced in the Central Plains during the Neolithic era (Zhao et al. 2019; Hu et al. 2022).

Given that Pingliangtai was likely a regional center with political significance, we hypothesize that alcohol-related ritual feasting activities played a significant role in this society.

In recent years, studies of microfossil remains through residue analysis of pottery vessels have made significant contributions to our understanding of ancient foodways, particularly regarding the production and consumption of fermented alcoholic beverages in China. Researchers can delve deeper into ancient diets and ritual behaviors, as well as the development of social complexity in prehistory (He et al. 2021; Liu 2021; Wang et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2022).

Previous studies have demonstrated that the earliest fermented alcoholic beverages in China were cereal-based beers, with their origins dating back at least 9000 years (McGovern et al. 2004; Wang et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2023b). These beverages were primarily produced using a qu starter as the fermentation agent, which contained cereals, filamentous fungi (molds) and yeast, a brewing method which appears to have dominated the alcohol production throughout the Neolithic period (Liu 2023). In this study, microfossil analysis is employed to examine pottery vessels. This method allows for the retrieval of various microbotanical and microbial remnants from residues adhering to pottery vessels excavated from various archaeological contexts.

Based on brewing experiments, qu-based fermented beverages contain diverse microorganisms, including starch grains, phytoliths, and fungi, many of which are identifiable under a light microscope. These microparticles exhibit specific combinations and morphological characteristics associated with fermentation, providing baselines for comparison with ancient samples (Wang et al. 2017; Liu and Liu 2023). During fermentation, starch granules undergo various forms of damage, including enzyme hydrolysis, gelatinization, and fermentation. Damage attributed to enzymatic digestion often manifests as random pitting, deep channels, broken edges, central depression, and a missing extinction cross, yet still retains weak birefringence. In contrast, gelatinization through high-heat cooking (steaming or boiling) is characterized by evenly expanded surfaces, with starch grains tending to fuse into large masses. When starches exhibiting signs of fermentation damage are found alongside fungi associated with brewing, it can be inferred that the artifact is connected to brewing activities (Henry et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2017; Liu and Liu 2023). We also consult published materials for the identification of phytoliths and fungi (Piperno 2006; Bao and Zhou 2007; St-Germain and Summerbell 2011).

In the current study, we examined 13 pottery vessels (coded as "P") unearthed from various contexts, including three tombs, two house floors, three ash pits, and an ash ditch (Fig. 2:B; Table S1). These vessels represent diverse pottery types likely used for cooking, serving, drinking, and storage. We particularly selected vessels with noticeable yellowish or dark residues on the interior walls for sampling, which hypothetically would yield more microfossil remains. Additionally, sediment was extracted from the exterior walls of two vessels (P2 and P5) to serve as control samples for comparison with residues found on the interior walls of the vessels, aiming to assess the potential for post-excavation contamination.

The process for extraction of microfossil remains in the laboratory is detailed in SI text. The transmitted light microscope used was an Olympus BX53, and the slides with residues were observed under a 400× magnification lens. The images of starch granules, phytoliths, molds, and yeast cells were taken with a Sony ILCE-3RM3 digital camera.

Microfossil remains, including starch granules, phytoliths, molds, and yeast cells, were observed in residue samples from 12 vessels, except for P8 (lid), which is therefore excluded from the following discussions.

3.1. Starch

Of the 12 residue samples, 388 starch granules were recorded. Among them, 385 (99.23% of the total) exhibit diagnostic features for taxonomical identification. Additionally, 93 starch granules (23.97% or the total) show damaged patterns resembling enzymatic hydrolysis, fermentation, and cooking gelatinization (Table S2).

Through comparative analysis with modern reference data (Figure S1), the starches from Pingliangtai vessels can be identified as eight types corresponding to specific taxa, as described below (Fig. 3). The morphological characteristics of these starch types are detailed in Table S3, and the frequency and percentage of starch granules are shown in Figure S2:A.

Type A starch granules belong to the subfamily Panicoideae, likely including foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, and Job’s tears. The morphological characteristics of starch granules from the two millets are very similar, differing only in size range. The smaller starch granules from Job’s tears are also similar to millets, making them difficult to distinguish and therefore discussed together (Liu et al. 2014). However, some larger granules with distinct characteristics, clearly identified as Coix, are analyzed separately. Type A starches (n = 130; accounting for 33.51% of the total and 84.62% ubiquity) represent the highest in proportion and ubiquity in the starch assemblage.

Type B: Starch granules of the tribe Triticeae are relatively scarce in the assemblage (n = 21; 5.41% of the total; 46.15% ubiquity). They likely belong to wheat, as this cultivar was found in the macrobotanical remains at the site.

Type C: Starch granules of the root of snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina) were observed (n = 58; 14.95% of the total; 76.92% ubiquity). This root is both edible and has medicinal value, as recorded in medical books such as Materia Medica (Li 1981 [original 1578]). Starch grains of this plant have been found on artifacts from the Lingji site (11,500–9000 BP) in the Central Plains region (Yang et al. 2016), as well as on artifacts from many Neolithic sites thereafter (Liu et al. 2013; Liu et al. 2018). This root appears to have been a common food source in ancient times.

Type D: Rice (Oryza sp.) starches were identified. Its granules are relatively small and mostly appear in the form of compound grains. A total of 23 rice compounds were observed, most of which exhibited damage characteristic of fermentation and cooking gelatinization, so only starch granules with identifiable morphologies were statistically analyzed. A total of 126 small starch granules were recorded (32.47% of the total; 61.54% ubiquity), ranking second in proportion and ubiquity in the starch assemblage. The earliest rice in the Central Plains was found at the Jiahu site, dating back ca. 9000 cal. BP. Rice was a widely cultivated cereal in this region during the Neolithic period (Yang et al. 2016). Notably, it was not only a common food but also the main raw material for making red rice qu starter (more discussion below).

Type E: Starch grains of Job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) were found (n = 8; 2.06% of the total; 23.08% ubiquity). The earliest Job’s tears starches were discovered at the Lingjing site (11,500–9000 BP) and have also been found in many Neolithic sites in the Central Plains (Yang et al. 2016).

Type F: Starch grains of acorn (Quercus sp.) were identified (n = 5 grains; 1.29% of the total; 23.08% ubiquity). Acorn starches have been frequently found on grinding stones in Neolithic sites in the Central Plains, indicating that it was a common food source in the past (Liu et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2013).

Type G: Starch grains of lily (Lilium sp.) were recorded (n = 36; 9.28% of the total; 69.23% ubiquity). Lily starches have been identified at Neolithic sites of Xijincheng in Bo’ai and Huizui in Yanshi, both in Henan (Wang 2015; Liu et al. 2018). Henan is still one of the main production areas of lilies today (Long 1998). This plant has been a significant traditional food source in the region.

Type H: Starch grains of water chestnut (Trapa sp.) were observed only in sample P1, hu container (n = 1; 0.26% of the total; 7.69% ubiquity). The earliest water chestnut macro-remains in the Central Plains were found at the Jiahu site (Yang et al. 2016). Due to its high starch content, this plant has been traditionally used as a staple food source and as a raw material for brewing alcoholic beverages (Ma 1975).

In the two control samples extracted from the exterior walls of pottery vessels, P2 yielded two starches (snake gourd and lily), while P5 revealed only one starch (snake gourd). These low numbers of starches stand in sharp contrast to those found on the interior walls of the same vessels. This contrast suggests that the starches present in the residue samples from the vessel interiors are unlikely to be the result of contamination from the environment.

3.2. Phytoliths

A total of 1345 phytoliths were discovered in the residue samples, classified into 14 distinct morphotypes (Fig. 4; Table S4). Among these are the η-type, unique to broomcorn millet husk, and the Ω-type, unique to foxtail millet husk. Common types from Panicoideae, such as bilobate, polylobate, and cross phytoliths, likely originating from millets and Job’s tears, were identified. Additionally, dendriforms characteristic of Pooideae were observed. Given the presence of a small number of wheat seeds in the macrobotanical remains and starch grains of Triticeae, these dendriforms are inferred to be from wheat husks.

Furthermore, bulliforms and scooped bilobate parallels characteristic of rice were identified. Other phytolith types include various elongates, squares, rondels, and saddles. These phytoliths mostly correspond to the types of starch grains and are consistent with the macrobotanical remains, such as those of millets, rice, and wheat. Additionally, there are phytoliths from other plant species, such as opaque perforated platelets commonly found in the Asteraceae family.

Therefore, the identification of phytoliths contributes to a deeper understanding of the overall plant assemblage at the site and bolsters the reliability of starch identification. The frequency and percentage of phytolith morphotypes are shown in Figure S2:B.

3.3. Fungi

Fungal elements associated with fermentation were observed in eight vessels, comprising yeast cells, hyphae, fungal spores, cleistothecia from Monascus sp., and vesicles from Aspergillus sp. (Fig. 5; Table S5). Among these, yeast cells were detected in seven samples (n = 57; ubiquity of 69.23%), representing the highest proportion and ubiquity. They typically exhibit circular and oval shapes, with a few elongated forms; the circular and oval forms resemble Saccharomyces cerevisiae, while the enongated forms bear a resemblance to Pichia pastoris. These two species have been identified in modern millet beer from north Shaanxi, China (Liu et al. 2019). However, identifying yeast cells in ancient specimens based solely on morphology is challenging.

Monascus cleistothecia were present in seven samples (n = 27; ubiquity of 53.85%). This mold serves as the primary fermentation agent traditionally used in the production of red rice beer. Fungal spore clusters were found in three samples, comprising numerous elliptical small spores that resemble those of Rhizopus or Mucor molds in morphology. These molds are commonly associated with the fermentation process in brewing cereal-based alcoholic beverages in China (Huang 2000; Bao 2007).

The frequency and percentage of fungal elements are shown in Figure S2:C.

Through the analysis of starch, phytoliths, and fungal remains in the pottery residues, we can now discuss several issues, including the function of pottery, the utilization of plant-based food resources, agricultural practices, ritual behaviors, social stratification, and regional interactions.

4.1. Evidence of fermentation method

Considering the presence of starch grains, phytoliths, and fungal remains in the pottery, it can be inferred that some vessels were used for brewing or drinking fermented beverages, while others served as cooking utensils or storage containers. Evidence of the pottery's contact with fermented food primarily comes from molds, yeast cells, and starch granules exhibiting fermentation characteristics. Among the 12 vessels examined, except for two (the ding caldron and pen basin), ten displayed a combination of cereals associated with yeast cells and/or molds. These observations suggest the use of the qu method for producing fermented beverages, with the primary fermentation agent consisting predominantly of Monascus, along with smaller amounts of Aspergillus and Rhizopus/Mucor. The raw brewing materials likely included rice, millets, Job’s tears, wheat, snake gourd root, lily, and water chestnut (Fig. 6; Figure S2).

The use of Monascus mold and rice to create the qu starter compound for making red rice beer represents the oldest brewing technique in China, dating back to the Shangshan culture in the lower Yangtze River region around 9000 years ago (Liu et al. 2023b). This technique had spread to the Peiligang culture in the Central Plains by 8000 years ago (Liu et al. 2023a) and continuously practiced during the Yangshao culture (ca. 7000 − 5000 cal. BP) (Liu 2021). The brewing method observed at Pingliangtai clearly inherited this ancient tradition.

Husk phytoliths from foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, rice, and wheat were identified in the vessel residues. While it is conceivable that these husks could be associated with the use of sprouted grains for brewing beer, the presence of husk phytoliths in the fermented products may have resulted from deficient dehusking process. Hence, we are inclined to believe that the brewing method primarily involves qu fermentation.

4.2. Vessel functions and drinking behavior

According to previous research, jiandiping amphorae was the typical pottery types used as brewing and drinking vessels during the Yangshao culture period in the middle Yellow River region (Liu 2021). However, during the Longshan period, the vessels associated with alcohol consumption included various types of pottery serving multiple functions, ranging from production and consumption in multiple steps. The residue analysis in this study provides insights into the functions of specific vessel types. We categorize the pottery vessels into seven functional groups based on their form and associated microfossil remains (Fig. 6).

(1) Fermentation vessel. The guan jar (P13) features a restricted orifice and a globular body, a shape consistent with fermentation jars that first appeared in the early Neolithic (ca. 10,000-7000 cal. BP) across both southern and northern China (Liu et al. 2019). Over the following two millennia in North China, this vessel form disappeared in the Yanshao culture area of the western inland, but continued in the Beixin and Dawenkou cultures in the eastern coastal region (Liu 2023).

Starch granules inside the Pingliangtai jar exhibit gelatinization and fermentation-induced damage, along with phytoliths of broomcorn millet husks, as well as yeast cells and Monascus mold. The presence of these microfossils, combined with the vessel's form, suggests it was likely used for brewing and storing fermented beverages. This jar resembles corresponding vessels found in the Dawenkou and Longshan cultures in Shandong (Fig. 7:1,2).

2. Heating and pouring vessel. Gui pitchers (P9, P10, P11) have been regarded for heating and pouring out alcoholic beverages, as it is crafted with a spout, a handle, and three hollowed legs. In many cases, soot is visible on the exterior surface of the vessel. This vessel type was first developed in the east coast region and flourished in the Dawenkou and Shandong Longshan cultures (Tang 1979; Gao and Shao 1981). The Pingliangtai gui pitchers closely resemble those from the east coast region (Fig. 7: 3,4). Residue analysis on gui pitchers from the Liangchengzhen site of the Shandong Longshan culture indicates their association with fermented mixed beverages (McGovern et al. 2005). Starch granules exhibiting gelatinization and fermentation damage, along with fungal hyphae, yeast cells, and Monascus mold, were observed in the Pingliangtai gui pitchers. This confirms that the function of gui pitchers was related to preparing warm alcohol before serving.

3. Liquid serving vessels. The hu containers (P1, P3) are characterized by an open orifice and a cylindrical body with a globular curve. Diverse starch types showing characteristics of fermentation, yeast cells, and Monascus mold were present, suggesting their use for serving alcoholic beverages. The early examples of this vessel form can be traced to the Dawenkou and Shangdong Longshan cultures (Fig. 7:5,6).

4. Drinking, libation, and bartending vessels. The bei cup (P2) and gu goblet (P7) belong to this category. The bei cup closely resembles a modern drinking cup, with early forms found in the Dawenkou and Shandong Longshan cultures (Fig. 7:8,9). Residue analyses have revealed evidence of fermented beverages in such cups from Yuchisi (Dawenkou culture) and Liangchengzhen (McGovern et al. 2005; Liu et al. 2022).

The gu goblet features a tall cylindrical body and a flaring orifice, suggesting it was possibly used as a drinking cup. Its prototype can be found in the Dawenkou culture (Fig. 7:7). Some gu goblets have a very wide flaring orifice, raising questions about their practicality for drinking. However, our experimental drinking test with such a goblet indicates that these goblets can effectively serve as drinking vessels (Figure S3). The flaring orifice also suggests they may have been used for pouring liquids, not just for drinking. Similar bronze goblets with a bronze or jade rod placed inside, dating to the Shang and Zhou dynasties, have been found and were likely used as a set of bartending tools to facilitate liquid mixing for libation rituals (Li 2023). These libation rituals, which involve pouring alcohol onto the ground using gu goblets to serve deities, can be traced back to the Neolithic Liangzhu and Dawenkou cultures in the east coast region, predating the Longshan culture in Henan (Li 2022).

Starch granules inside the Pingliangtai cup and goblet show signs of fermentation damage, along with yeast cells and Monascus mold, suggesting they were used as drinking and libation vessels to serve the living and deities, respectively.

5. Cooking vessels. The ding cauldron (P5) and yan steamer (P12) were common cooking vessels. Ding was used for boiling food, while yan, with a grid base placed atop a cauldron, functioned as a steamer. Both vessels revealed gelatinized starches, consistent with their cooking functions. However, the yan steamer also contains starches showing characteristics of fermentation, yeast cells, and Monascus mold, suggesting that it was likely a multifunctional vessel used for steaming food, including ingredients used in fermentation. This finding is consistent with the residue analysis of a steamer rack from Liangchengzhen, which also revealed evidence of fermented beverages (McGovern et al. 2005). The Pingliangtai ding and yan also closely resemble those from Dawenkou and Longshan cultures in the east (Fig. 7:10–13).

6. Food serving vessel. The qigai lid (P4) contains diverse starches of almost all types, with some exhibiting signs of gelatinization and fermentation. Phytoliths from millet and wheat husks, as well as yeast cells, are also present. This lid was likely used to cover food vessels containing diverse foods, including fermented ones. Its form also suggests it may have served as a large bowl. This vessel form is widely distributed cross-regionally.

7. Processing vessel. The pen basin (P6) revealed a few starches from millets and snake gourd root, along with abundant phytoliths including millet husks and plant leaves, but no fungal particles were observed. This vessel was likely used for washing and processing plant foods, and also share similarities with those found in the Dawenkou culture (Fig. 7:14).

In summary, among the seven functional vessel types, four are specifically designated for alcohol production and consumption, including the guan jar, gui pitcher, hu container, bei cup, and gu goblet. Additionally, two types, the yan steamer and qigai lid, are multi-functional, also involving the processing of fermented foods. Together, the majority of common food vessel types at Pingliangtai are associated with alcohol-related consumption. This vessel assemblage represents a drinking behavior focusing on sequentially stepped activities, serving alcohol to individuals and deities. Through this process, individualized social status and hierarchy could be promoted and established. Such a sophisticated ritual system was likely related to feasting activities, which differ sharply from those of the previous Yangshao culture. Yangshao amphorae, along with funnel and stove-cauldron set, were used as the primary fermentation and drinking facilities (Fig. 7:15–17), and alcoholic beverages were shared by group drinking through straws, a behavior that emphasized simultaneous, communal activities with less focus on individual social status.

4.3. Regional interactions and emergence of new forms of ritual feasting in the Central Plains

The presence of diverse alcohol-related vessels reflects the development of feasting activities emphasizing personal social status in ceremonial contexts, a practice not rooted in the local Yangshao culture but likely originating in the Dawenkou culture in the east and later spreading to the Central Plains (Liu 2023). Archaeological data, particularly pottery types, indicate that the westward influence of the Dawenkou culture began around 3300 BC via the Ying River and its tributaries. The resulting material assemblages primarily belong to the Dawenkou culture but also include elements of the local Yangshao culture, together referred to as the Ying River variant of the Dawenkou culture (Du 1992).

This cultural diffusion was possibly facilitated by population migration, with specific routes starting along the Ying and Guo Rivers to eastern Henan, then continuously moving to central and western Henan. Another route possibly along the Huai River to southern Henan. Consequently, most Dawenkou cultural remains are found in eastern Henan, followed by central Henan, with fewer in other regions (Zhang 2003). Meanwhile, the Qujialing culture (3400 − 2500 BC) in the south also influenced the Central Plains (Meng 2011) (Fig. 7).

As a result, between 3300–2800 BC, the Central Plains experienced the coexistence and integration of the local tradition (late Yangshao culture) with non-indigenous traditions (the Dawenkou and Qujialing cultures). These changes are reflected in ceramic vessel forms. At Dahecun in Zhengzhou, for example, while traditional Yangshao style vessels (e.g., ding cauldrons, guan jars, bo bowls, pen basins, and jiandiping amphorae) were present, diverse new vessel forms from the Dawenkou culture (e.g., gui and he pitchers, hu jars, gaobingbei high-stand goblets) and Qujialing culture (e.g., dou high-stand plates, quanzubei ring-based cups) also entered the pottery assemblage.

By 2800–2400 BC, eastern Henan was predominantly under the influence of the Yuchisi variant of the late Dawenkou culture, which also displayed many elements of the early Longshan culture (Miaodigou II culture) originating in the Central Plains. The subsequent development of these mixtures of material culture from the east and west contributed to the formation of the Zaolütai variant of the Longshan culture, with Pingliangtai as the regional center (Luan 1997).

In the early period of the Zaolütai variant (2300 BC), influence from the eastern region once again became dominant in the Central Plains. Pottery types originating from the Shandong Longshan culture became predominant over the local Longshan variants.

During Pingliangtai's heyday (2200–2000 BC), many common vessel types, including those analyzed in this study (e.g., gui pitcher, hu goblet, gu container), appear to have originated in the Shandong Longshan culture. They have also been found at other regional centers or large sites along the Ying and Ru River regions, such as Wadian (Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology 2004), Haojiatai (Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology 2012), Yanzhai (Cultural relics and museums of Henan University and Xuchang Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology 2024), Wangchenggang (Henan Institute of Cultural Relics 1992), and Lutaigang (Zhengzhou University 2000). The prototypes of these vessels can be further traced back to Dawenkou culture sites, such as Yuchisi (Institute of Archaeology and Cultural Bureau of Mengcheng County 2007), Xixiahou (Gao and Ren 1964), Liulin (Nanjing Museum 1965), and Jianxin (He and Liu 1996) (Fig. 7).

Analysis of pottery residues from Pingliangtai in this study further demonstrates that the majority of vessel types constitute a complex assemblage used for serving alcoholic drinks in ritual feasts, and this assemblage was dispersed from the east to the Central Plains. This cultural phenomenon aligns with ancient texts documenting interactions and integration between the Huaxia groups in the west and the Dongyi groups in the east (Li 1983; Jin 2006).

These alcohol-related vessels facilitated individual-centered feasting behavior, introducing new cultural values and encouraging social hierarchy. This shift parallels other social changes in the Longshan culture, such as the construction of walled enclosures for inter-group competition and the production and exchange of prestige goods as status symbols. Together, these developments set the foundation for the emergence of the Bronze Age state of the Erlitou culture.

The study of microfossil remains on Pingliangtai pottery revealed the functions of diverse vessel types, demonstrating that most vessel forms were associated with the production and consumption of fermented alcoholic beverages. The fermentation method involved the use of a qu starter compound containing mainly Monascus, but also Aspergillus, and Rhizopus/Mucor molds, to brew cereal-based beer. These vessel types facilitated complex drinking rituals involving several sequential steps, from heating and pouring to serving individual drinking. Alcohol was served not only to the living but also to deities through libations. This new way of ritual feasting emphasized individual status and differed sharply from the group drinking tradition of the previous local Yangshao culture. It originated in the east coast region and dispersed to the Central Plains as a component of the regional interaction sphere.

Funding

This research received funding from the 2023 National Social Science Foundation of China for the project "Research of Excavation Data from the Yangshao to the Xia and Shang Dynasties at the Sanyizhai Site in Huaxian County, Henan Province" (Grant No.: 23BKG013), and from the 2024 Henan Provincial Bureau of Cultural Relics for the "Henan Science and Technology Archaeological Enhancement Project."

Author Contribution

Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, and writing: Lina Li, Chunyang Liu, Li Liu; writing: Jiyin Wei; Resources: Yanpeng Cao, Shuzheng Zhu. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our gratitude to the Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology for their significant efforts in making this research possible. We also extend our thanks to Dr. Gu Chungguang and Dr. Qin Cunyu from Henan University for their invaluable support and advice.

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Alcoholic Drinking Practices During the Late Neolithic Longshan Culture in the Central Plains, North China

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Archaeological Background

3. Research methods and materials

3. Results

3.1. Starch

3.2. Phytoliths

3.3. Fungi

4. Discussion

4.1. Evidence of fermentation method

4.2. Vessel functions and drinking behavior

4.3. Regional interactions and emergence of new forms of ritual feasting in the Central Plains

5. Conclusion

Declarations

Funding

Author Contribution

Acknowledgement

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

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