Drifting plastics, the forensics of current and future pollution

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4703998/v1

Download PDF

Article

Drifting plastics, the forensics of current and future pollution

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4703998/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

You are reading this latest preprint version

The most distinctive features of plastics are their durability and presence throughout the world. Improper handling, has filled the oceans with plastic debris.¹ Despite the prevalence of pollution, no proper assessment of pollution has been made to date revealed.^2,3 Here we show that a completely different approach to the clarification of this matter as taken up by various other studies. ^4–8 This research is the first to show that the actual seriousness of drifting plastics undergo degradation to produce monomers, based on decomposition and fields survey. Polystyrene (PS)was decomposed at 30°C and generate styrene oligomer (SO*).⁹ Plastic monomers degraded further and their metabolites became more toxic in the ocean. Since 1950 to 2020, 1.4 billion metric tons (MT) of SO have been shown present in the oceans from field survey. From the seawater volume and SO in deep sea, has been shown to give rise to 2.7 × 10⁷ MT, and 15% of inflowing PS has been found to undergo degradation. 1.5 × 10⁸ MT of PS are adrift until now. The monomers; SO, bisphenol A (BPA), and phthalate (PAE) have a direct negative impact on the marine ecosystem. In addition, the methane and ethane gases generated by PE/PP degradation have a greenhouse effect, suggesting that they are involved in global warming. “Actual plastic pollution” based on decomposition rates and field surveys to clearly show “present and future trends”, forensically. Present result contributes to worldwide current monitoring that should assist in the development of appropriate strategies designed to curb drifting plastic pollution in the oceans.

SO* is a mixture of styrene -monomer (SM), -dimer (SD), and -trimer (ST) with a certain composition ratio.

Earth and environmental sciences/Environmental sciences

Earth and environmental sciences/Ocean sciences

Health sciences/Risk factors

Physical sciences/Chemistry

Drifting

Thermoplastic

Degradation

Pollution

Green House effect

Field survey

A coastal survey was conducted from 2000 to 2020 in the northern hemisphere between 1.4°(Singapore) and 61.2° (Anchorage/USA) north latitude. The author collected and analyzed 5,000 coastal seawater and sands samples from more than 25 countries in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific oceans. Figure 1 (a) shows these countries that range from the United Kingdom/UK (1) to Mexico (26), from which be samples were obtained: the North Pacific Gyre current (arrows), and Pacific garbage patch (circles). The details are presented in s. Table 1. Figure 1 (b) shows survey sites, administrative areas, cruise lines (cruise-A, C), currents [Kuroshio (up), Oyashio (down)] and Fig. 1 (c) is diffusion of monomers around Japan.

The details are presented in s. Table 2. Three cruises (-A,-B,-C) were conducted in the northwest Pacific Ocean (5°to 55°N, 130°to 160°E, 30% of the northwest Pacific Ocean), with Cruise A sailing only on surface water from sample correction (s. Table 3) and Cruise B (s. Table 4), Cruise C (s. Table 5) to obtain water samples (Niskin bottle with CTD) from the surface to vertical target depths of (10m, 50m, 100m etc.) and up to 5,000m below the seafloor.

On-site visual surveys in each country confirmed the presence of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), PS, and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastics in all beaches. Virtually, no polycarbonate (PC), epoxy resin (EPX), or polyurethane (PU) debris could be found. Target plastic monomers in the samples were extracted with dichloromethane (JIS K0450-10) and analyzed by GC/MS.¹⁰ The results have been presented in s.Table 1–5. All samples were found to contain monomers: SO derived from PS, BPA derived from PC and EPX, PAE from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and other plastics additives were also detected. ^11–15No isocyanate derived from polyurethane (PU) could be found. Aaverage monomer levels tended to be high in low latitude countries (Malaysia, Sri Lanka) and low in high latitude countries (UK, Alaska/USA). Monomer content was low in open ocean areas (Pacific, Atlantic) and high in closed ocean areas (Mediterranean, Gulf of Mexico/Texas, Louisiana, Missouri, Alabama/USA), indicating regional characteristics. This content was higher in areas surrounding densely populated large cities (Massachusetts, Maryland, California/USA), and lower in island areas isolated in oceans of Hawaii, Micronesia (Pacific), San Miguel, and Bermuda (Atlantic). (s. Table 1).¹⁵Hotspots (Greece, Malaysia, Costa Rica, Florida/USA) could also be found.¹³ s. Table 1, shows average SO values for world coasts to be 3,500 µg kg^− 1 sand and 6.0 µg L^− 1 in water, and the average value of BPA1,500 µg kg^− 1 for sand and 30.0 µg L^− 1 for water. SO in sand was twice that of BPA, and in water BPA was five times that of SO.

The coasts of Japan were examined to determine the causes of monomer generation. Total Japan coastline length is 35,000 km and that of the seashore, approximately 5,000 km. The Japanese government has divided the coasts into nine districts for its administration [Fig. 1(b) and s.Table 2].¹⁴Along coasts, drifting plastics mainly moves from south to north due to the Kuroshio (east) and branched Tsushima Current (west) from the south, and the Oyashio (east) and Liman Current (west) from the north [Fig. 1 (b), arrow]. The mean SO value of sand was found to be 390 µg kg^− 1 and mean BPA value to be 450 µg kg^− 1. SO in water was 5 µgkg^− 1 and BPA 4 µgL^− 1 as shown s. Table 2, both of which are present throughout the world. Seasonal change in SO and the influence of weather were investigated at Sanbanze Beach Park, the deepest in the Tokyo Bay area. The SO results are shown in s. Figure 2. SO levels were high in summer and found to be influenced by temperature. The survey site being close to the Edo River, a correlation was evident between SO increase and rainfall.¹²

A simulation study (s. Scheme 1) was made of the diffusion of SO and BPA from the coast of Japan. The results are shown in Fig. 1(c), (-2010 and 2050 year) and indicated monomer to be dispersed by currents (Kuroshio, Geostrophic and Ekman. s. Table 3–5,

Surface and s.Scheme 1)). The high values of monomer in the pelagic survey and simulation results were found in good agreement (s. Table 4,5. 30°N and160°E. line). TIM-GC/MS chromatograms of the Seiho Sea Mt. sediment and beach sand¹⁰are shown in s. Figure 1(a, Haemida. b, Seiho). Common monomers SO^* (SM, SD, ST), BPA and PAE (DBP, DHP, DEHP) were detected in extracts s. Figure 1(a, b), and benzoate was separately detected only in sediment [s. Figure 1(b)]. In open ocean, average pelagic monomer values were 0.2 µg L^− 1 for SO and 2 µg L^− 1 for BPA at upside. At a depth of 2,000 m or less, SO was 0.1 µg L^− 1 and BPA was 0.2 µg L^− 1, indicating monomers to be present in deep sea water (s. Tables 4, 5).

Toxicity

Acute and chronic toxicity of monomer (SO, BPA, PAE) metabolites screening test was confirmed in Algae [[(OECD TG 201:2006)] ¹⁶and Daphnia copepod [ASTM (2004)]¹⁷. The inhibition capacity of algae growth is shown in Fig. 2 (a) and acute toxicity due to the inhibition of daphnia mobility is shown in Fig. 2 (b). The details are shown in (s. Table 6). Figure 2(b), indicates decrease in mobility for SM, SD, and MHP from 1 µg L^− 1 to 10 µg L^− 1, and for other chemicals from 100 µg L^− 1, the values of toxicity were within the range of those for SO and BPA as measured in the field (s.Table 1,2). Monomer metabolites were found to be highly toxic even when present at low concentrations (s.Table 6: red and yellow flame), thus proving their greater toxicity. Intraperitoneal administration of ST, a type of SO, has been shown to inhibit osteoblast formation in fish.¹⁸ SO, BPA, PAE and its metabolites may possibly have a direct negative impact on marine ecosystems.

Decomposition

A new decomposition method using polyethylene glycol (PEG1540) as a heat medium. TP: PS⁹, PC¹⁹, EPX²⁰, PET, and PU indicated to undergo decomposition from 30° to 280°C. The rate of TP decomposition was calculated using the monomers produced, and activation energy (Ea) was found to be 40.0 to 42.0 kJmol^− 1. Table 1 shows the TP formula, molecular weights, solubility, toxicity, and Ea, etc. of each purified TP used and the monomers generated. Monomers detected on world coasts and oceans have been shown kinetically not only to seep from products but to degrade in oceans and on beaches after being washed ashore with TP degradation.

The decomposition of plastics has long been the subject of research .^21–24Staudinger decomposed PS and found the principal components to be SM.²¹ When PS products were first developed, PS could not be commercialized owing to its decomposition within 2–3 months (monomer disease). To address this situation, the purity of raw material monomers and various additives such as stabilizers and flame retardants has been improved.²⁵ Today, virgin pellet (nurdle) manufacturers have produced pellets with dozens of additives optimized for the final product to be supplied to molding companies. The kinds of additives used and at what concentrations are trade secrets. Many studies use these nurdles for decomposition by microorganisms,^26,27 and thus it is necessary to determine whether microorganisms function as degrading polymer C-C bonds when used as carbon sources. Research on drifting plastic has been carried out on the assumption that plastic is “unbreakable.”^3–8,28,29

In this study, PS was constructed based on the decomposition rate of 0.3 g per ton per year at 30°C, ⁹ Unlike polymers, the monomers generated dissolve in milligrams per liter (Table 1), thus making possible field research. Environmental analysis has extremely low reproducibility owing to the limitations of the equipment used for determinations at low concentrations of monomer.³⁰ In GC/MS, selected ion monitor (SIM) such as (m/z: 312) for ST, and (m/z: 228 qualitative and TMS-derivative, m/z: 357) for BPA were used. The accuracy of monomer determination was confirmed during decomposition and field surveys. In PS decomposition, ST was the first to be obtained by a backbiting reaction.²² In field surveys, SO was detected as a product of PS decomposition in all samples at a constant composition ratio. The SO ratio of PS decomposition was 1:1:5 (SM:SD:ST).⁹ In the field was higher in ST, with coastal sand and water; 1:1:8 ¹⁴ and open ocean; 1:1:300 ¹⁵ (s. Table 1,2: surface. Table 4,5: deep sea). ST-degrading bacteria were few in number and the amount of ST unchanged.³¹ There are no currents in the deep sea, under 2,000m.³⁰ The monomers in deep sea may attached with microbe and moved, vertically.

The Ea required for TP decomposition was found to range from 40.0 to 42.0 kJmol^-1(Table 1), amounts that have been shown kinetically to promote TP degradation in the environment. The small amount of Ea was thought due to the hydroxyl group on PEG as a heating medium to promote the reaction. Ester bonds (Table 1) in the polymer chain of PC/EPX/PET and urethane bonds (Table 1) have been shown to be solvolyzed by OH groups.³¹ In 1962, Rachal published “Silent Spring”, that indicated pesticide toxicity to find its way into human consumption. The accidental ingestion of macro, micro, and nano plastics is widely recognized.^32,33 A whale's body temperature is 50°C and a turtle's is 38°C. Table 1 shows the physical properties of TP used in this study along with monomer toxicity and the activation energy (E_a) required for decomposition. Plastics are polymers that are comprised of more than 500 monomers chemically bonded. Microorganisms cannot use polymers as carbon sources owing to the absence of degrading enzymes.^7,8 Various additives such as unreacted monomers from the production of nurdles and polymerization initiators are present in plastics that may continue to remain in the gastrointestinal tract, but these chemicals do not chemically bond with plastics but remain within the polymer matrix. They exist as dispersions. Monomers and additives are low in molecular weight, and microorganisms can be used as carbon sources.²⁷ From persistent chemicals such as the pesticide Agent Orange used in the Vietnam War and PCB

one of POP’s, degrading bacteria have been isolated and biochemical analyzes of the decomposition pathways and metabolic enzymes have been carried out.^35,36 SO, BPA, and PAE have been found to increase with rainfall, suggesting a leaching effect.¹² However, there are many more monomers in the ocean that have been shown to derive from TP degradation. PAE at concentrations higher than those of SO and BPA in all surveys, is derived from PET and is used as a PVC plasticizer or as an additive for various plastics, thus making plastic identification difficult. Attention should also be directed to the sources of BPA used as an additive in the production of thermal paper and EPX ship hull paints. Isocyanates generated by PU decomposition could be found in any and all field surveys owing to their high reactivity.

A systematic approach has been necessary since 2010 following the Oslo and Paris Convention guidelines to monitor and harmonize marine debris. To effectively address the problem of drifting and stranding plastics in oceans, ^37–39 data on the abundance of monomer are essential. 3%,³⁷ or 1.8 × 10⁷ MT, and PS, 6.0 × 10⁸ MT, have been shown in this study to enter world oceans. From 1950 to 2020, 1.4 billion MT of SO have been shown present in total have been shown in the oceans, from the world's total seawater volume (1 × 10²¹ L) and SO in deep sea water at a depth exceeding 2,000 m. PS has been shown to give rise to 2.7 × 10⁷ MT, and 15% of inflowing PS has been found to undergo decomposition. 1.5 × 10⁸ MT of PS are always adrift on ocean water surfaces.

Since 1950 more than 10 billion MT of plastic have been produced.⁴⁰The composition ratios of TP produced throughout the world are PE 24%, PP 23%, PVC 15%, PS 6%, EPX, PC 3% and PET 2%, these values accounting for 75% of all plastic production.⁴⁰ PE and PP constitute approximately 50% of TP production. The degradation of PE/PP is frequently carried out,^23,24 and Sara et al.²⁴ have shown methane and ethane gas to be generated by this degradation in outdoor settings using sealed containers. The Galileo said, “If you don't see it, it doesn't happen” and “If you don't try to see it, you will never know.” This research has used monomers not visible the naked eye to develops a forensic approach to “new problems” that have become rampant throughout the world. Monomer determination requires considerable time so that repeated sampling as in Japan should be carried out measurement over time. Intermittent site examination would not provide, the curve present trajectory required to evaluate trends and the efficacy of management. Present result contributes to worldwide current monitoring that should assist in the development of appropriate strategies designed to curb drifting plastic pollution in the oceans. Plastic monomers/SO, BPA, and PAE not only exert direct negative impact on the marine ecosystem, but lead to the decomposition of PE/PP to produce methane and ethane, whose the greenhouse effect (GHG) is 25 times that of carbon dioxide.⁴¹

This research is the first to definitively demonstrate the reality of the present and future trends of effects, effects quite likely due to the careless practices of human being.

The whole humanity has no entitlement to bring about the global destruction of the environment, to the ruin of all lives.⁴²

BPA = bisphenol A 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) propane

agent orange = 2,4,5-trichloro phenoxy acetic acid

EPX = epoxy resin

MT = metric tone

PAE = phthalic acid ester

PC = polycarbonate

PCB = polychlorinated biphenyl

PET = polyethylene terephthalate

PH =phenanthrene

POP = persist organic pollutant

PS = polystyrene

PVC = polyvinyl chloride

SD1 = styrene dimer 1,3-diphenyl-1-butene

SD2 = styrene dimer, 2,4-diphenyl-1-butene

SIM = selected ion monitor

SM = styrene monomer, phenyl ethylene

SOs = styrene oligomer

ST = styrene trimer, 2,4,6-triphenyl-1hexene

TIM = total ion monitor

PE = polyethylene

PP= polypropylene

DBP= dibutyl phthalate

DHP = dihexyl phthalate

DEHP= di 2-ethylhexyl phthalate

PEG= polyethylene glycol

Ea= activation energy

MHP= mono hydrogen phthalate

GHG= greenhouse gas

BENT= 1,2,4-benzenetriol

BEND =1，4-benzenediol

DBMP= 2,6-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol

MEPHD= 4-methyl-1,2-phenylene-diamine

MBP= butyl hydrogen phthalate

MEHP= 2-ethylhexylhydrogen phthalate

MHP= hexyl hydrogen phthalate

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files.

Ethical statement

This article does not involve any human or animal subjects.

Author contributions

Akifumi Okabe:20%, field survey and writing original draft. Hideto Sato:

5%, field survey (voyage). Koshiro Koizumi: field and calculation. Hiroyuki Taguchi:

5%,TP decomposition rate and GPC analysis. Masaki Okada:field. Yoichi Kodera:

5%, field and kinetics. Takashi Kusui: 5%, toxicity. Nobuo Suzuki: ST toxicity and

biodegradation. Kohei Takatama: diffusion calculation. Seon Yong Chung: 5%, field

survey and ST biodgradation. Bum-Gun Kwon: field survey. Masahiko Nishimura:

field survey. Sibel Mente: field survey. Sara J. Royer:PE/PP degradation. Hideki

Kimukai: field survey.Katsuhiko Saido: 40%, field survey (voyage), TP

decomposition, GC/MS analysis,writing & supervision.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Katsuhiko Sadio ([email protected]) or Akifumi Okabe ([email protected])

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts to declare.

Acknowledgement

The authors gratefully acknowledge R. Hiratsuka,Y.N.Nakayama, A.Soejima, K. Metori,T. Akiyama, A.Nishino, S.Oh (Taiwan), B. Lejano (Philippine) for their valuable assistance. We also thank Prof. K.Kogure,Prof. A. Tsuda, and Prof. H. Ogawa at the AORI, University of Tokyo, for their valuable instructions. The captains, S. Suzuki, U. Fujita, and N. Seino, who gave much encouragement during the voyage, are greatly appreciated. The crews of Hakuho-,Tansei-maru of the JAMSTEC are thanked very much for their kind hospitality.

This paper is dedicated to UIC Emeritus Distinguished Professor Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty, who died 10 July 2020.

Carpenter, E. J.; Anderson, S. J.; Harvey, G. R.; Miklas, H. P.; Peck, B. B. Polystyrene spherules in coastal waters. Science 1972, 178, 749−750
Thompson, R. C.; Olsen, Y.; Mitchell, R. P.; Davis, A.; Rowland, S. J.; John, A. W. G.; McGonigle, D.; Russell, A. E. Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic? Science 2004, 304, 838
Rochman, C. M.; Hoh, E.; Kurobe, T.; Teh, S. J. Ingested plastic transfers hazardous chemicals to fish and induces hepatic stress. Nature Sci. Rep. 2013, 3, 3263.
Richard C. Thompson, Charles J. Moore, Freerick S. vom Saal, Shanna H. Swan. Plastics, the environment, and human health: current consensus and future trends. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B (2009)1,1-14. Doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0053
Melanie Bergmann, France Collard, Joan Fabres, Geir W. Gabrielsen, Jennifer F. Provencher, Chelsea M. Rochman, Erik van Sebille, Mine B. Tekman. Plastic pollution in the Arctic. Nature reviews, Earth & Environment, 3,2022,323. https://doi.org.10.1038/s43017-022-00279-8
Atsuhiko Isobe, Shinsuke Iwasaki. Keiichi Uchida Tadashi Tokai. Abundance of non-conservative microplastics in the upper ocean from 1957 to 2066, Nature Commun.,10,417(2019).
Alessandro Pischedda, Maurizio Tosin,Francesco Degli-Innnocenti. Biodegradation of plastics in soil: The effect of temperature, Poly. Deg. & Stab.,170(2019)109017. https://doi.org/101016/j.polymerdegradstab.2019.109017
Kristina M. Chomiak,Wendy A. Owens-Rios, Carmella M. Bangkong, Steven W. Day, Nathan C. Eddingsaas, Matthew J. Hoffman, Andre O. Hudson, Anna Christina Tyler. Impact of microplastic on freshwater sediment biogeochemistry and microbial communities is polymer specific. Water 2024,16(2):348. https://doi.org/103390/w16020348
Hideki Kimukai, Yoichi Kodera, Koshiro Koizumi, Masaki Okada, Kazunori Yamada,Toshihiko Hiaki, Katsuhiko Saido, Low temperature decomposition of polystyrene, Appl. Sci., 2020, 10,5100; doi:10.3390/app10155100
K. Saido, A. Okabe, M.Yamamoto, S. Togawa,H. Sato, K. Kogure, T. Kusui,: Analysis of New Chemical Contamination Generated from Debris Polystyrene in Yaeyama Islands, Intern. Environ. Anal. Chem., 92(8), 251-254, 2012.
Katsuhiko Saido,Koshiro Koizumi, Hideto Sato,Naoto Ogawa,Bum Gun Kwon,Seon-Yong Chung,Takshi Kusui, Masahiko Nishimura,Yoichi Kodera, New analytical method for the determination of styrene oligomers formed from polystyrene decomposition and its application at the coastlines of North-West Pacific Ocean, Sci. Total Environ.,473-474,490-495 (2014).
A. Keiji, Saido Katsuhiko, S-Y.Chung , Hiaki, Toshihiko , D-S.Lee, B-G. Kwon Evidence of Transport of Styrene Oligomers Originated from Polystyrene Plastic to Oceans by Runoff. Sci. Total Environ. 667, 57-63 (2019). doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.383
Bum-Gun Kwon,Seon-Yong Chung,Katsuhiko Saido,Sandybeaches as hotspots of bisphenol A .Environ. Resch.,191(2020)110175. doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110175
Amamiya Keiji, Koizumi Koushiro, Yamada Kazunori, Hiaki Toshihiko, Kusui Takashi, Saido Katsuhiko. Analysis of Drifting Polystyrene Degradation Surround Japan, Austin J. Environ.Txicol.,6(1), id1030 (2020).
H. Kimukai, K. Koizumi, H.Taguchi,A.Okabe,K.Takatama, Seon Yong Chung,Bum Gun Kwon, M. Nishimura,S.Mentese, K. Saido Predicting drifting polystyrene degradation in world oceans based on thermal decomposition EST Water 2022, 2, 1976-1983 https:doi.org/10.101021/acsestwater.2c00023 2022
Annkatrin Weber,Christian Scherer, Nicole Brennholt, Georg Reifferscheid Martin Wagner. PET microplastics do not negatively affect the survival, development, metabolism and feeding activity of the freshwater invertebrate Gammarus pulex. Environ. Polln., 234 (2018)181-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.014
Kawago Umi, Hatano Kaito, Ikeuchi Toshitaka, Honda Masato, Watabe Yukina, Ogiso Shouzo, Nagami Arata, Matsubara Hajime⁴ Urata Makoto, Matsumoto Kyoko, Srivastav Ajai K., Saido Katsuhiko,Suzuki Nobuo. Effects of a Styrene Trimer (2,4,6-triphenyl-1-hexeneon Plasma Mineral Concentrations of Nibbler Fish, Girella punctata. Int. J. Zoolog. Invest. 7(2), 785-791. 2021.
K. Koizumi, A.Okabe, H. Kimukai, H.Sato, H.Taguchi,K.Takatama, M. Nishimura, Bum Gun Kwon and K. Saido Novel decomposition of polycarbonate and effect for marine ecosystem RSC Adv. 2023,13,29668-29674
Katsuhiko Saido, Hiroyuki Taguchi, Yoichi Kodera, Takeshi Kuroki, Jeong-Hun Park,Seon-Yong Chung Low Temperature Decomposition of Epoxy Resin .Macromol.Research,12(5), 490-492 (2004).
H.Staudinger, A.Steinhofer. Uber hochpolymer verbindungen.107 Mitteilung. Beritragezur Kenntis der polystyrole, Ann., 517, 1935. https//doi.org/10.1002/jlac.19355170104
A.Guyot. Recent developments in the thermal degradation of polystyrene -A review, Polym. Degn. Stab.,15,219-235 (1986). https//doi.org/10.1016/0141-3910(86)90052-2
H.Bockhorn, A.Hornung, U. Hornung, D.Schawaller. Kinetic stuy on thermal degradation of polypropylene and polyethylene. J. Anal. Appl. Pyr., 48, 93-109 (1999).
Sarah-Jeanne Royer, Sarah Ferron, Samuel T. Willson, Davi M. Karl. Production of methane and ethylene from plastic in the environment, PLOS ONE, https://doi.org/10.137/journal.pone.0200574 2018
Qi Dong, Aditya Dilip Lele,Xinpeng Zhao,Shuke Li, Sichao Cheng, Yueqing Wang,Mingjin Cui,Miao Guo, Alexandra H. Brozena, Ying Lin, Tangyuan Li, Lin Xu, Aileen Qi, Ioannis G.Kevrekidis,Jianguo Mei, Xuejun Pan, Dongxia Liu, Yiguang Ju,Liangbing Hu.Depolymerization of plastics by means of electrified spatiotemporalheating, Nature, 616,488-494 (2023). https//doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05845-8
John N. Hahladakis,Costas A. Velis, Roland Weber, Eleni Iacovidou, Phil Purnell An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J. Hazd. Matl., 344(2018)179-199. https//doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014
Ali Chamas, Hyunjin Moon, Jiajia Zheng, Yang Qiu, Tarnuma Tabassum, Jun Hee Jang, Mahdi Abu-Omar, Susannah L. Scott, Sangwon Suh. Degradation rate of plastic in the environment. ACS Sust. Chem.& Engn., 2020, 8, 3494-3511. https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acssuscheeng.9b06635
Han Sol Kim, Myung Hyun Noh, Evan M. White,Michael V. Kandefer, Austin F. Wright, Debika Datta, Hyun Gyu Lim,Ethan Smiggs, Jason J. Locklin, Md Arifur Rahman ,Adam M. Feist ,Jonathan K. Pokorski , Biocomposite thermoplastic polyurethanes containing evolved bacterial spores as living fillers to facilitate polymer disintegration. Nature comn. (202415:3338 . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-47132-8
N.Yamashita,K. Kannan, S.Taniyasu, Y.Horii, G.Petrick, T. Gamo. Global survey of perfluorinated acids in oceans, Mar. Pollut.Bull.,51(8-12),658-668 (2005).
Henry, Stommel, A survey of ocean current theory. Deep-Sea Res.,4(3).149-184 (1957).
Shimio Sato, Tadahiro Murakata, Synji Baba, Yasunobu Saito, Sinya Watanabe. Solvent effect on thermal degradation of polystyrene, J. Appl. Poly. Sci., 40, 2065-2071(1990).https//oi.org/10.1002/app.1990.070401120
Yan-Duan Lin, Ping-Hsiu Huang, Yu-Wei Chen, Chang-Wei Hsieh,You-Lin Tain, Bao-Hong Lee, Chih-Yao Hou, Ming-Kuei Shih. Sources, degradation, ingestion and effects of microplastics on humans: A review. Toxics, 2023, 11,747. https//doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090747
Aswin Thacharodi, Ramu Meenatchi, Saqib Hassan, Naseer Hussain, Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Jesu Arockiaraj, Huu Hao Ngo, Quynh Hoang Le, Arivalagan Pugazhendhi. Microplastics in the environment: A critical overview on its fate, toxicity, implications, management, and bioremediation strategies. J. Environ. Mang.,349,119433 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119433
Guan-Chun Li,Chunxiang Piao,Katsuhiko Saido,Seon-Yong Chung, :Isolation and characterization of a styrene trimer degrading microorganism. Adv.Materl.Res.,1073-1075,666-671 (2015).
Zaborina, O.; Daubaras, D.; Zago, A.; Xun, L.; Saido, K.; Klem,T.; Nikolic, D.; Chakrabarty, A. M. Novel Pathway for Conversion of Chlorohydoroxyquinol to Maleylacetate in Burkholderia Cepacia AC1100.J. Bact. 1998, 180 (17),4667−4675.https//doi.org/10.1128/jb18917.4667-4675.1998
Kensuke Furukawa. Biochemical and genetic bases of microbial degradation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). J.Gen Appl. Microbiol.,46-283-296 (2000).https//doi.org/10.2323/jgam.46.283
Jenna R. Jambeck, Roland Geyer, Chris Wilcox, Theodore R. Siegler, Miriam Perryman, Anthony Andrady, Ramani Narayan, Kara Lavender Law. Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science, 347, 768-771(2015). Doi:10.1126/science.1260352
Roland Geyer, Jenna R. Jambeck, Kara Lavender Law. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv., 3e1700782 (2017). Doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700782
Clare Ostle, Richard C. Thompson, Derek Broughton, Lance Gregory, Marianne Wootton, David G.Johns. The rise in ocean plastics evidenced from a 60-year time series. Nature Communs., (2019)10:1622, https//doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09506-1
Plastics - The Facts 2023, 2023. 40)Plastics Europe. https://plasticseurope.org/knowledge-hub/plastics-the-facts-2023/ (accessed April 2024).
Nazar Kholod, Meredydd Evans, Raymond C. Pilcher, Volha Roshchanka, Felicia Ruiz, Michael Cote, Ron Collings. Global methane emissions from coal mining to continue growing even with declining coal production, J. Cleaner Prod., 256 (2020)120489. https//doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120489
Visual Feature | Beat Plastic Pollution Available on line: http://unep.org/interactive/beat-plastic-pollution/ (accessed on 26 May 2024).

Table 1 is available in the Supplementary Files section.

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Reviewers invited by journal
26 Jul, 2024
Editor assigned by journal
22 Jul, 2024
Editor invited by journal
22 Jul, 2024
Submission checks completed at journal
18 Jul, 2024
First submitted to journal
08 Jul, 2024

You are reading this latest preprint version

Drifting plastics, the forensics of current and future pollution

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Result

Field survey

Toxicity

Decomposition

Discussion

Conclusions

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Declarations

References

Table 1

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1