Morphometric description of the feline tibia using three – dimensional computed tomography

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4711654/v1

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Morphometric description of the feline tibia using three – dimensional computed tomography

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4711654/v1

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Background: Previous studies have described bone length and surface area of the feline tibia, however information regarding three-dimensional (3D) and internal morphometry is lacking. The objective of this study was to describe the length, external and internal bone diameter, cortical thickness, cancellous bone volume and mechanical joint angles in 8 domestic adult feline cadaver tibiae using computed tomography (CT). Measurements of the paired tibiae were performed in triplicate and the average was recorded.

Results: Overall tibia length measured 111.61mm (95% CI 107.89 – 115.53mm).

The proximal tibia had a mean cancellous bone volume of 12.45mm³(95% CI 11.4 – 13.49mm³). The distal tibia had a mean cancellous bone volume of 2.09mm³(95% CI 1.62 – 2.55mm³). The narrowest internal bone diameter mediolaterally was at 50% tibial length (4.23mm 95% CI 4.05 – 4.42mm) and craniocaudally at 75% tibial length (3.77mm 95% CI 3.57 – 3.97mm). Mean mechanical joint angles and 95% CI were: tibial plateau angle 31.42° (30.09 – 32.75°); mechanical medial proximal tibia angle 95.15° (94.63 – 95.68°); mechanical medial distal tibia angle 94.08° (93.36 – 94.79°); mechanical cranial distal tibia angle 88.69° (87.04 – 90.32°); mechanical caudal proximal tibia angle 58.53° (57.20 – 59.86°) and sagittal plane alignment 30.16° (28.47 – 31.84°).

Conclusions: Use of computed tomography allowed the estimation of internal bone morphometry and joint geometry in a heterogeneous sample of feline tibias. This provided data that would be valuable in planning and developing new techniques for internal fracture fixation.

Feline anatomy is described in anatomic texts, and a computed tomographic study focused on surface measurements and area of the feline tibia (1–4). However information regarding detailed bone morphometry is lacking (3). Bone morphometry is the quantitative analysis of the dimensions and microarchitecture of bone (1, 2, 5). Previous studies in other regions of the feline body include the skull and pelvis, in addition to several other flat and long bones, which have been valuable in gaining a better understanding of feline sexual dimorphism, development and orthopaedic structure (2, 6, 7).

The primary objective of this study was to conduct a comprehensive morphometric analysis of the tibia in a heterogeneous population of domestic cats using three-dimensional (3D) reconstructed CT images. It quantified parameters, including tibial osteometric and volumetric measurements, particularly cortical and cancellous bone volume. Secondary objectives were to test the feasibility of measuring joint angles including tibial plateau angle, mechanical medial proximal tibial angle, mechanical medial distal tibial angle, mechanical cranial distal tibial angle, mechanical caudal proximal tibial angle and sagittal plane alignment. The aim of the study was to provide an accurate and detailed description of the tibia's anatomical features and contribute to our understanding of feline skeletal morphology.

Overall tibia length

The mean tibia length was 111.61mm (95% CI 107.89–115.53mm).

Cancellous bone

The proximal tibia had a mean cancellous bone volume of 12.45mm³ (95% CI 11.4–13.49mm³). The distal tibia had a mean cancellous bone volume of 2.09mm³ (95% CI 1.62–2.55mm³).

External bone diameter

External bone diameter at each landmark is presented in Table 1. On transverse reconstruction, the proximal tibial metaphysis had a rhomboid - like shape (Fig. 1B).

The bone was widest in the mediolateral direction at the level of the medial to lateral tuberosity (17.40mm 95% CI 16.71–18.08mm). The tibia was widest in the craniocaudal direction distal to this at the tibial tuberosity (15.24mm 95% CI14.65–15.84mm). The tibia then narrowed as a triangular shape just before widening again distally mediolaterally juxta-articular to the tibiotarsal joint (Fig. 1D). The tibia was wider mediolaterally than it was craniocaudally overall except at 25% and 50% tibial length (Figs. 2 and 3). The tibia was 231% wider in the mediolateral direction at the medial to lateral tuberosity compared to the narrowest point at 50% tibial length (Figs. 2 and 3). The tibia was 212% wider in the craniocaudal direction at the level of the tibial tuberosity compared to the narrowest point at 50% tibial length.

Table 1

Computed tomography external diameter measurements of the bone radius as a mean with 95% confidence intervals. CC = craniocaudal, ML = mediolateral
Location	Direction	Measurement (mm)
Medial to lateral tuberosity	CC	14.24 (13.69–14.79)
Medial to lateral tuberosity	ML	17.40 (16.71–18.08)
Tibial tuberosity	CC	15.24 (14.65–15.84)
Tibial tuberosity	ML	16.40 (15.45–17.35)
25% tibial length	CC	10.95 (10.63–11.26)
25% tibial length	ML	7.87 (7.57–8.18)
50% tibial length	CC	8.66 (8.28–9.04)
50% tibial length	ML	7.59 (7.32–7.87)
75% tibial length	CC	7.22 (6.94–7.50)
75% tibial length	ML	7.77 (7.56–7.97)
Juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint	CC	8.06 (7.85–8.26)
Juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint	ML	11.34 (10.92–11.76)

Internal bone diameter

Internal bone diameter at each landmark is presented in Table 2. Similar to the external diameter measurements, the internal diameter of the tibia was widest mediolaterally at the medial to lateral tuberosity and craniocaudally at the tibial tuberosity. The narrowest internal diameter mediolaterally was at 50% tibial length (4.23mm 95% CI 4.05–4.42mm). The narrowest internal diameter craniocaudally was at 75% tibial length (3.77mm 95% CI 3.57–3.97mm).

Table 2

Computed tomography internal diameter measurements of the tibia as a mean with 95% confidence intervals. CC = craniocaudal, ML = mediolateral
Location	Direction	Measurement (mm)
Medial to lateral tuberosity	CC	11.68 (11.2–12.15)
Medial to lateral tuberosity	ML	15.03 (14.13–15.92)
Tibial tuberosity	CC	11.96 (11.36–12.57)
Tibial tuberosity	ML	14.3 (13.32–15.29)
25% tibial length	CC	7.53 (7.28–7.78)
25% tibial length	ML	5.10 (4.92–5.28)
50% tibial length	CC	4.10 (3.78–4.43)
50% tibial length	ML	4.23 (4.05–4.42)
75% tibial length	CC	3.77 (3.57–3.97)
75% tibial length	ML	4.58 (4.36–4.80)
Juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint	CC	6.09 (5.89–6.30)
Juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint	ML	8.95 (8.37–9.54)

Cortical bone thickness

Cortical bone thickness at each landmark is presented in Table 3. The cranial and caudal cortex was thickest at 50% tibial length measuring 2.72mm (95% CI 2.46–2.99mm) and 1.86mm (95% CI 1.64–2.08mm), respectively. The cortex then thinned proximally and distally. The cortex was thinnest at the lateral tuberosity (0.94mm 95% CI 0.86–1.02mm) followed by the medial aspect of the tibial tuberosity (0.98mm 95% CI 0.88–1.07mm). Overall, the cortical bone thickness was widest at the mid-diaphysis (50% tibial length).

Table 3

Computed tomography cortical bone thickness measurements of the tibial radius as a mean with 95% confidence intervals. Cr = cranial, Ca = caudal, M = medial, L = lateral
Location	Direction	Measurement (mm)
Medial to lateral tuberosity	Cr	1.27 (1.16–1.38)
	Ca	1.29 (1.15–1.44)
	M	1.43 (0.83–2.04)
	L	0.94 (0.86–1.02)
Tibial tuberosity	Cr	1.93 (1.72–2.15)
	Ca	1.45 (1.16–1.73)
	M	0.98 (0.88–1.07)
	L	1.07 (0.95–1.19)
25% tibial length	Cr	2.30 (2.07–2.53)
	Ca	1.25 (1.00–1.50)
	M	1.44 (1.35–1.53)
	L	1.33 (1.25–1.42)
50% tibial length	Cr	2.72 (2.46–2.99)
	Ca	1.86 (1.64–2.08)
	M	1.62 (1.51–1.74)
	L	1.77 (1.54–2.00)
75% tibial length	Cr	1.77 (1.62–1.92)
	Ca	1.66 (1.54–1.78)
	M	1.54 (1.43–1.64)
	L	1.66 (1.56–1.75)
Juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint	Cr	1.07 (0.72–1.43)
	Ca	1.18 (1.02–1.35)
	M	1.05 (0.91–1.19)
	L	1.34 (1.12–1.55)

Tibial plateau angle

The mean tibial plateau angle was 31.24° (95% CI 30.09–32.75°).

Mechanical Angles

Mechanical joint angles are presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Computed tomography tibial plateau angle and mechanical angle measurements of the radius as a mean with 95% confidence intervals. TPA = tibial plateau angle, mMPTA = mechanical medial proximal tibia angle, mMDTA = mechanical medial distal tibia angle, mCrDTA = mechanical cranial distal tibia angle, mCaPTA = mechanical caudal proximal tibia angle, SPA = sagittal plane alignment
Angles	Degrees (°)
TPA	31.42 (30.09–32.75)
mMPTA	95.15 (94.63–95.68)
mMDTA	94.08 (93.36–94.79)
mCrDTA	88.68 (87.04–90.32)
mCaPTA	58.53 (57.20–59.86)
SPA	30.16 (28.47–31.84)

Interobserver intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) showed excellent correlation in 72.13% of the measurements, good in 8.20%, fair in 11.48% and poor in 4.92% (refer to Additional File 1).

This study utilised computed tomography to describe the morphometry of the feline tibia that includes the external and internal bone diameter, cortical bone thickness, cancellous bone volume and mechanical joint angles in a heterogenous population of domestic cats. The use of CT can potentially provide clinicians with better spatial and contrast resolution, and in turn analysis of the internal architecture of the bone which would not otherwise be seen on radiographic imaging (8, 9). The accuracy of using a medical imaging software such as OsiriX to perform 3D reconstructions and measurements has been validated for use in human medicine (10, 11).

References for tibial length in domestic shorthair cats using radiography have been previously established (12). The aforementioned study measured a length of 80.59 ± 4.84mm in females and 86.77 ± 5.29mm in males. The present study measured tibial length of all the cats in the cohort regardless of sex to be 111.61mm (95% CI 107.89–115.53mm) which is similar to another study where measurements were 108.14mm ± 3.06 for females and 113.27mm ± 4.84 for males (3). The authors speculate that the difference in the measurements of CT versus radiography may be due to the variation in cat size, breed, age and sex amongst studies (3, 12). However, further investigation comparing CT and radiographic measurement of tibial length in a homogenous cohort of cats is required.

The tibia is one of the few bones in which the implant should be inserted normograde, due to the risk of damaging the stifle joint components (13). In this study, the proximal and distal tibia had a mean cancellous bone volume of 12.45mm³ (95% CI 11.4–13.49mm³) and 2.09mm³ (95% CI 1.62–2.55mm³), respectively. The implication of this finding is that if a surgeon were to preferentially engage the distal cancellous bone to seat intramedullary implants, they would need to be placed within 2mm from the distal joint surface to be able to achieve this.

Current recommendations for intramedullary pin diameter relative to internal diameter of the isthmus of the tibia are 30–40% for plate - rod constructs, and 70–90% for the interlocking nail to achieve appropriate stiffness whilst maintaining enough micromotion to form a secondary callus (8, 14). The narrowest internal bone diameter of cats in this study was mediolaterally at 50% tibial length (4.23mm 95% CI 4.05–4.42mm) and craniocaudally at 75% tibial length (3.77mm 95% CI 3.57–3.97mm). These measurements can serve as guidelines for the maximum diameter that can be used for placement of intramedullary implants in cats. Similarly, external bone diameter is narrowest at these levels.

Feline bones have been previously described as brittle (15, 16). Long bones are anisotropoic, which can be explained by the presence and distribution of cortical and cancellous bone (17). Cortical bone is thickest at the level of the diaphysis while cancellous bone is found mostly at the metaphysis (17). The microarchitecture of cortical bone is more organized and denser, making it stiffer than cancellous bone. On the other hand, cancellous bone can withstand higher strain than cortical bone when a force is applied (75% and 2%, respectively) making it more resilient to deformation (17). Despite the finding that the tibial cortex tended to be thicker in the mid to distal tibia, the external diameter was reduced in this region. This suggests that the overall structural properties of the feline tibia might be less in this region and explain the higher incidence of tibial fractures distally (18–20). However, this has not been verified with biomechanical testing.

Canine and feline tibia reference joint angles have previously been measured using radiography (21–26). These angles are usually used as a reference for congenital angular limb deformities or fractures that have healed as a malunion (22, 23). The authors wanted to determine whether CT measurements would be similar to previous reports. One study noted the mean tibial plateau angle (TPA) of cats with and without cruciate disease were 24.7 ± 4.5° and 21.6 ± 3.7°, respectively and found this to be statistically significant (21). The mean TPA in this study was 31.42° (CI 95% 30.09–32.75°), which is higher than that of previous studies (21, 23). This could be due to the difficulty of finding clear and repeatable landmarks on CT as compared to that established for plain radiography (27).

The mean mechanical medial proximal tibial (95.15° 95% CI 94.63–95.68°) and mechanical medial distal tibial (94.08° 95% CI 93.36–94.79°) angles in this study were closer to those reported by previous authors (23, 24). Only one other study has measured the mechanical cranial distal tibial angle and it is similar to the measurements in this study (88.68° 95% CI 87.04–90.32) (23). This suggests that measurements of the mechanical tibia angles using CT are similar to that of radiography. CT could be advantageous over radiography as it removes the need for meticulous subject positioning, thereby decreasing sedation or anaesthetic time and accelerating surgical planning. Computed tomography data can also be reformatted in specific planes or as 3D projections to create representations of anatomic structural relationships (9).

In this study, the authors adapted the calculation of sagittal plane alignment (SPA) to determine the curvature of the feline tibia in the craniocaudal direction (28). It is known that the feline tibia has a craniocaudal procurvatum but to the authors’ knowledge, no acceptable reference range has been established (4, 29). The SPA in this study had a mean of 30.16° (95% CI 28.47–31.84°) which may serve as a reference for procurvatum in cats. This could be a consideration in intraoperative contouring of intramedullary implants or for correction of angular limb deformities in cats (30, 31).

Limitations of the present study include that cat cadavers were skeletally mature, although the ages were not recorded. Our results therefore could not take into consideration juvenile or geriatric anatomical differences. It has been reported in canine and rodent models that cortical and cancellous bone volume decreases with age (32, 33). A study that measures the difference between cortical and cancellous bone volume among various age groups in cats is necessary to determine if cats lose bone density as they age. This has implications with regards to implant purchase in metaphyseal bone in cats as they age. Another limitation is that the cadavers were not specifically positioned for measurement of the tibia. This required manipulation of the images in the three-dimensional multiplanar reconstruction (3D-MPR) to perform angle measurements, which could have skewed some of the measurements if not done correctly. Slice thickness of the CT acquisition was 1.25mm, whereas some previous studies for bone morphometry in animals have used 0.4mm, 0.5mm or micro– CT (2, 3, 34). Perhaps if the images were collected with thinner slices, measured angles would have been similar to that of plain radiography particularly in determining tibial plateau angle.

This study describes the external and internal bone diameter, cortical thickness, cancellous bone volume, tibia plateau angle, mechanical joint angles and sagittal plane alignment of normal feline tibias using computed tomography. Routine fracture and angular limb deformity planning consists of plain orthogonal radiographic views however 3D understanding of the feline tibia may lead to improved outcomes with osteosynthesis. This may also have potential implications for future orthopaedic surgery planning, implant creation and comparative anatomy research.

Specimens

8 skeletally mature cats were euthanaized for reasons unrelated to this study. All the cadavers were defrosted overnight at room temperature (24°C) before the computed tomography scans were performed. The cadavers were obtained through the Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Animal Donation Program.

Imaging

Cadavers were placed in a foam trough and positioned in dorsal recumbency. Both pelvic limbs were extended caudally with the stifles oriented perpendicular to the table to maintain rotational alignment. The thoracic limbs were secured in a neutral position. CT scans of the tibiae were performed using a 128-slice helical scanner (General Electric 128-slice Computed Tomography scanner, Revolution EVO Gen 3; General Electric Company) and images were acquired as a volume with 200 mA, 120 kVp, 1.25 mm slice thickness, 0.9 mm interval, 0.53 helical pitch, 512 X 512 matrix and 1 second rotation time.

Data collection

Images were analysed using OsiriX MD v14.0 (Pixmeo, Bernex, Switzerland). 16 tibiae were used in total for this study. Any tibiae that were found to have orthopaedic and joint abnormalities were exclude. Cortical bone volume, external and internal bone diameter and cancellous bone volume were measured independently by a surgical resident and veterinary student (MP and MC). The mechanical angles were measured independently by a surgical resident and board – certified surgeon (MP and RB). The measurements were collected in triplicate at separate times without randomization. The average values of the triplicate measurements were used in this study.

Each tibia was viewed using the 3D – MPR of the CT scans to accurately obtain the sagittal, dorsal, and transverse planes and correct any positional anomalies. Craniocaudal alignment was standardized with the axis reference lines centred through the middle of the tibial diaphysis on the dorsal and sagittal reconstructions. The overall length of the tibia was measured in the sagittal plane starting from most proximal point of the intercondylar eminences to the midpoint between the distal aspect of the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia cranially and the caudodistal aspect of the cochlea tibia caudally. The medial to lateral tibial tuberosity was measured at the first transverse slice though the proximal tibia where the respective prominences were most obvious and a clear corticomedullary junction could be identified. The tibial tuberosity was measured at the point where there was clear insertion of the patella ligament in both the transverse and sagittal reconstructions.

The tibial length was divided into four and each tibia was measured at the level of 25%, 50% and 75% of total tibial length. These levels were calculated for each tibia as a percentage of their overall tibial length. 25% tibial length was measured at a quarter of the way distal from the intercondylar eminences. 50% tibial length was halfway between the intercondylar eminences and the distal articular surface. 75% tibial length was a quarter of the tibial length proximal to the distal tibial articular surface. The distal tibial measurement point was at the first transverse reconstruction proximal to the distal articular surface where it was clear that the corticomedullary junction could be identified. The landmarks are shown in Fig. 2.

External and internal diameters, and cortical bone thickness were measured using OsiriX bone algorithm (window level 300, window width 1500 Hounsfield Units [HU]). Measurements were taken of each tibia landmark described above in the transverse plane of the 3D – MPR (Fig. 3).

Due to the triangular shape of the proximal tibia, the measurements at the point of the tibial tuberosity were taken at the widest points. All measurements were collected on the transverse reconstruction and perpendicular axis lines were used as a reference for relative cranial, caudal, medial and lateral orientations of the tibia. The length region of interest (ROI) tool was used to measure each value. The relationships of bone measurements were collected as a percentage based on the calculated means.

Cancellous bone measurements were collected from the CT DICOM images with a window level of 350 hounsfield units (HU) and window width 850 HU after manual segmentation described by previous authors (2). The proximal and distal tibial cancellous bone volumes are shown in Fig. 4.

Tibial length was measured as the distance from the proximal tibial joint centre to the distal tibial centre on the dorsal reconstruction (35). Mechanical angles were measured from screen captures taken of the correctly aligned images based on the 3D-MPR and transferred into a veterinary surgical planning program (vPOP Pro, Veterinary Preoperative Orthopaedic Planning, London, UK). The tibial plateau angle was measured as previously described by Slocum and Devine (27). Mechanical axis of the tibia was drawn from the centre of the proximal tibial articular surface, between the intercondylar eminences to the distal articular surface in between the medial and lateral malleoli (23). The mechanical medial proximal tibial angle (mMPTA), mechanical medial distal tibial angle (mMDTA), mechanical cranial distal tibia angle (mCrDTA) and mechanical caudal proximal tibia angle (mCaPTA) were measured as described previously (24). The sagittal plane alignment (SPA) was calculated by subtracting the mCaPTA from mCrDTA (28). A positive number was indicative of a procurvatum and a negative number indicative of recurvatum (28).

Statistical Analysis

Summary statistics were calculated using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Washington, United States). The interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was calculated for the measurements collected by all observers for each angle using the “irr” package within RStudio (PBC, Boston, Massachusetts, United States). Inter - observer ICC was calculated between the surgical resident and veterinary student for external and internal bone diameter and cancellous bone volume and between the surgical resident and board-certified surgeon for the mechanical joint angles. The intra-class correlation (ICC) of between 1 and 0.75 indicated excellent correlation, between 0.74 and 0.60 indicates good correlation, between 0.59 and 0.40 indicates fair correlation and below 0.40 indicates poor correlation (36).

three–dimensional

computed tomography

Hounsfield units

MIP

Maximum intensity projection

MPR

Multiplanar review

ROI

Region of interest

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The cadavers were donated by the Sydney School of Veterinary Science through the Animal Donation Program

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are included in this published article.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

Funding for manuscript submission was partially funded by the Sydney School of Veterinary Sciences.

Authors' contributions

MP was responsible for the study conception, design, analysis and interpretation of data, and drafting in addition to approval of the final manuscript. MC was responsible for the analysis and interpretation of data and drafting in addition to approval of the final manuscript. RB was responsible for the study conception, design, analysis and interpretation of data and drafting in addition to approval of the final manuscript. KJ was responsible for study conception, design, drafting and approval of the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Evelyn Hall for providing guidance and performing statistical analyses on the mechanical angle data sets and Interobserver intraclass correlation coefficient.

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No competing interests reported.

Appendix1ICCcalculations.pdf
Appendix 1 - Interobserver intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) for each site and joint angle. OTL = overall tibial length; MTLTICC = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity internal bone diameter craniocaudal; MTLTIML = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity internal bone diameter mediolateral; MTLTECC = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity external bone diameter craniocaudal; MTLTEML = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity external bone diameter mediolateral; MTLTCr = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity cortical thickness cranial; MTLTCd = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity cortical thickness caudal; MTLTMed = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity cortical thickness medial; MTLTLat = medial to lateral tibial tuberosity cortical thickness lateral; TTICC = tibial tuberosity internal bone diameter craniocaudal; TTIML = tibial tuberosity internal bone diameter mediolateral; TTECC = tibial tuberosity external bone diameter craniocaudal; TTEML = tibial tuberosity external bone diameter mediolateral; TTCr = tibial tuberosity cortical thickness cranial; TTCd = tibial tuberosity cortical thickness caudal; TTMed = tibial tuberosity cortical thickness medial; TTLat = tibial tuberosity cortical thickness lateral; 25ICC = 25% tibial length internal bone diameter craniocaudal; 25IML = 25% tibial length internal bone diameter mediolateral; 25ECC = 25% tibial length external bone diameter craniocaudal; 25EML = 25% tibial length external bone diameter mediolateral; 25Cr = 25% tibial length cortical thickness cranial; 25Cd = 25% tibial length cortical thickness caudal; 25Med = 25% tibial length cortical thickness medial; 25Lat = 25% tibial length cortical thickness lateral; 50ICC = 50% tibial length internal bone diameter craniocaudal; 50IML = 50% tibial length internal bone diameter mediolateral; 50ECC = 50% tibial length external bone diameter craniocaudal; 50EML = 50% tibial length external bone diameter mediolateral; 50Cr = 50% tibial length cortical thickness cranial; 50Cd = 50% tibial length cortical thickness caudal; 50Med = 50% tibial length cortical thickness medial; 50Lat = 50% tibial length cortical thickness lateral; 75ICC = 75% tibial length internal bone diameter craniocaudal; 75IML = 75% tibial length internal bone diameter mediolateral; 75ECC = 75% tibial length external bone diameter craniocaudal; 75EML = 75% tibial length external bone diameter mediolateral; 75Cr = 75% tibial length cortical thickness cranial; 75Cd = 75% tibial length cortical thickness caudal; 75Med = 75% tibial length cortical thickness medial; 75Lat = 75% tibial length cortical thickness lateral; JAICC = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint internal bone diameter craniocaudal; JAIML = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint internal bone diameter mediolateral; JAECC = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint external bone diameter craniocaudal; JAEML = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint external bone diameter mediolateral; JACr = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint cortical thickness cranial; JACd = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint cortical thickness caudal; JAMed = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint cortical thickness medial; JALat = juxta-articular to tibiotarsal joint cortical thickness lateral; TPA = tibial plateau angle; mMPTA = mechanical medial proximal tibia angle; mMDTA = mechanical medial distal tibia angle; mCrDTA = mechanical cranial distal tibia angle; mCaPTA = mechanical caudal proximal tibia angle; SPA = sagittal plane alignment; LPTCBV = left proximal tibial cancellous bone volume; LDTCBV = left distal tibial cancellous bone volume; RPTCBV = right proximal tibial cancellous bone volume; RDTCBV = right distal tibial cancellous bone volume;

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Morphometric description of the feline tibia using three – dimensional computed tomography

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Abstract

Figures

Background

Results

Overall tibia length

Cancellous bone

External bone diameter

Internal bone diameter

Cortical bone thickness

Tibial plateau angle

Mechanical Angles

Discussion

Conclusion

Materials and Methods

Specimens

Imaging

Data collection

Statistical Analysis

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1