Removal of Congo Red Dye by Using Chemically Activated Lemon Peel Adsorbent

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4720412/v1

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Removal of Congo Red Dye by Using Chemically Activated Lemon Peel Adsorbent

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4720412/v1

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The synthetic colorant Congo red (CR) dye is an organic pollutant due to its resistance to decolorization. It is used in rubber, textiles, printing, and dyeing industries. Different dye-contaminated water can have adverse effects, including carcinogenicity and toxicity to biotic components. The discovery of CR dye, its noteworthy effects on aquatic life, and the ability of chemically activated lemon peel (LP) to function as an adsorbent were all made possible by this effort. The optimal conditions of dye concentration, adsorbent quantities, temperature, and contact period were assessed. The separation and removal of pollutants from wastewater were assessed by centrifuging the samples for the adsorption procedure, which is often used by spectrophotometers to evaluate LP’s capacity to remove CR. LP was chemically activated by using different KOH and H₃PO₄material-chemical ratios due to its frequent availability in nature, high surface area, and active functional groups. For CR adsorption, the best contact periods were 80 and 100 minutes, respectively, with removal percentages of 86.86% and 89.03% for 1:3 or LP-H3 (1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, and 1:5 ratios of LP and H₃PO₄ as LP-H1, LP-H2, LP-H3, LP-H4, and LP-H5) ratios. The greatest CR adsorption took place at a dye concentration of 100 ppm. Through this work, LP served as an affordable and eco-friendly adsorbent. Further, more research can be done on using low-cost, high-performing, eco-friendly adsorbents to remove hazardous dyes.

Congo Red dye

Lemon peel

Carcinogenicity

Adsorption

Activation

Eco-friendly

High surface area

Congo Red (CR), a synthetic dye belonging to the azo group, finds extensive application in the paper and textile sectors to differentiate the stains applied to elastic fabrics. The most effective method for identifying amyloidosis is CR tissue staining. CR is used as a pH indicator, printing color, and food color in many countries (Imran et al., 2022; Oladoye et al., 2022). This dye has the chemical formula (C₃₂H₂₂N₆Na₂O₆S₂) and a molecular weight of 696.665 g/mol. Among the most extensively used and well-liked azo dyes is CR, which has two azo bonds (-N=N-) in its chemical structure (Rápó et al., 2020). An anionic diazo dye with benzidine as its basis, CR can trigger allergic responses and be metabolized to the carcinogenic compound benzidine. It is made up of the sodium salt of 3,3′-([1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diyl) bis (4-aminonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid). CR, for example, is structurally resistant to oxidation and subsequent biodegradation, allowing it to persist in the environment for a long time (Indira et al., 2021).

Wastewater generally includes substances like human waste, food scraps, oils, soaps, sometimes harmful chemicals, or dissolved and suspended organic solids (Sonune & Ghate, 2004). Currently, the wastewater that the textile industry releases contains a number of contaminants, such as chemicals, heavy metals, disinfectants, steadying agents, synthetic dyes, and inorganic salts (Biocomposite From Novel Bioresin With Natural Biomass, 2023). There is a risk to the health of humans, aquatic life, plants, and other living things when numerous textile enterprises routinely discharge untreated effluent into rivers, lakes, etc. (Kim et al., 2021). A few of the effluents produced by wet processing processes for textiles include chemicals, reactive dyes, biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and different organic compounds (Bilal & Iqbal, 2020; Harja et al., 2022). Textile effluents must therefore be treated before being released into lakes, rivers, etc. (Hunger, 2003; Ding et al., 2022; Tomar et al., 2022). The untreated wastewater directly releases from various industries and households results in the release of toxic pollutants to the aquatic environment (Rasalingam et al., 2014). Therefore, treating dye effluent prior to release into the environment is crucial (Patel & Vashi, 2012; “Removal of Azo and Anthraquinone Dye by Plant Biomass as Adsorbent – a Review,” 2020; Patel & Vashi, 2012). In our country, industries like the textile industry, leather industry generally situated on the bank of any river and disposes their wastewater without treated in river. And this causes a threat to aquatic life of that river or surrounding environment (Chia et al., 2022; Kabir et al., 2015).

One of the regular waste products of the soft drink and lemon juice industries worldwide is lemon peel (LP) (Dutta et al., 2023; Mahato et al., 2018), which has been utilized to eliminate various dyes such as Methyl orange; Methyl red; Congo red; Phenyl orange dye; Chrysoidine; Mordant dye; Mordant Black 17 (Calcon); Blue direct dye; Direct red dye etc. various toxic dye. Lemon/citrus peel is among the potential inexpensive adsorbents (Bailey et al., 1999; Novera et al., 2021; Sanghi & Verma, 2013). Furthermore, fruit peels or skins typically contain amide surface functional groups, pectin compounds, cellulose, hemicellulose, carboxyl, and hydroxyl, all of which improve interactions between adsorbent and adsorbate (Garzón-Barrero et al., 2016). Lemon peels, in particular, are frequently used as adsorbents in wastewater treatment due to their high surface areas and dynamic functional groups (Bhatnagar et al., 2009; Dey et al., 2021). Trypan Blue elimination in lemon peel is highest at 89.47%, followed by Methylene Blue at 85.37%, Congo Red at 84.61%, Brilliant Yellow at 82.85%, Reaction bleach 5 at 66.37%, Naphthol Green-B at 62.09%, Acid Orange at 61.88%, Crystal Violet at 57.27%, Ramazol BB at 46.09% (Hamid, 2011; Mohammadi et al., 2014; Bhatnagar et al., 2010). To chemically activate lemon peel, use a ratio of 1:1 and a temperature of 600 °C (ALP-600). The capacitive performance of carbon materials is systematically analyzed in alkaline (2 M KOH) and acidic (0.5 M H₂SO₄) electrolytes (Surya & Michael, 2021). So, wastewater have to be treated or have to remove these chemicals with different adsorbents.

The most popular physicochemical treatment for removing dissolved organics from wastewater is activated carbon, which works even in diluted solutions. However, activated carbon that is sold commercially is very expensive (Zeng et al., 2019; García et al., 2021). Searches for low-cost, biodegradable substitute adsorbents have been conducted in an effort to reduce the treatment cost of dye removal (Sanghi & Verma, 2013; CRINI, 2006; Sen, 2013). In order to remove reactive dye from aqueous medium, activated carbon made from sawdust and other biomass-based materials was used as an adsorbent (Ara et al., 2013; “Removal of Azo and Anthraquinone Dye by Plant Biomass as Adsorbent – a Review,” 2020; Vimonses et al., 2009; Kaur et al., 2013; Ahmad & Kumar, 2010; Bardhan et al., 2020; Costa & Paranhos, 2019; Ramutshatsha-Makhwedzha et al., 2022; Sime et al., 2023). Adsorbents formed from agricultural biomass can be broadly classified into four categories: leaf-based, peel-based, stem-based, and seed-based (Ramutshatsha-Makhwedzha et al., 2022; Samanta et al., 2022; Shafiqul Alam, 2015; Surya & Michael, 2021). Sorbents that are abundant in nature, need little processing, or are waste products or by-products of another business are generally seen to be inexpensive (Aslam & Javed, 2023; Pérez et al., 2023). Congo red removal could be done by adsorption method by lemon peel.

Adsorption is not a new concept and is likely to remain popular because of its many benefits, including low cost, plenty of readily available adsorbents, high adsorption capacity, simple regeneration potential, and low energy consumption (Mohammadi et al., 2014; (Harja et al., 2022; Lafi et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2023). One of the best methods for purifying polluted water is adsorption (Vimonses et al., 2009). The experiment will have benefits including affordability, accessibility, and environmentally beneficial nature of lemon peel adsorbent (Zare et al., 2015; Henseler et al., 2022; Mafra et al., 2013). Lemon peel could be efficient for the removal of this toxic dye (Türkmen et al., 2022).

Human health is gravely threatened by the harmful and poisonous waste of water problem. These wastes also cause cancer and are hazardous. The methods to remove hazardous compounds from aquatic environments, particularly those supporting human health, are provided in this paper to assist readers. Furthermore, as demonstrated by the subsequent investigation, lemon peel may be an affordable and environmentally benign adsorbent for the removal of CR from wastewater.

2.1 Field of Study

The experimental dye CR (Congo Red) was collected from the local market, Kumarkhali, Kushtia.

2.2 Collection of Materials

The LP was retrieved from the neighborhood market next to the campus of Khulna University. To increase the surface porosity of LP, the surface structure had to be modified with a strong acid and base. For this investigation, KOH and H₃PO₄ were gathered from nearby scientific supply stores.

2.3 Raw Materials Processing

LP was collected but was not readily available for the preparation of activated material. To do so, it first needed to be well processed. The processing of raw materials included successive orders.

2.3.1 Raw Material Drying

LP was dried in order to remove the moisture. Drying was obtained in two ways.

2.3.1.1 Manual Drying

The LP was sun-dried for seven days in order to eliminate any remaining moisture.

2.3.1.2 Oven Drying

After manual drying, the fresh lemon peel (lemon exocarp), which is the outer layer of the pericarp (Citrus limon) (Figure 1), was cleaned and chopped into small pieces to create the adsorbent lemon peel. It was weighed and baked for twenty-four hours at 60 ºC. It began to weigh again after this 24-hour period had passed. The texture was once more placed in the oven for an hour, and then it was once more weighed using an electric weight machine (ATY 224) to guarantee that the dry weight would be reached (Figure 2.a). To detect any appreciable variation in weight both before and after keeping the batch of LP in the oven, this procedure needs to be repeated.

A constant weight was achieved, and water from the material is considered to be removed entirely when there is very little to no significant variation in the change in weight before and after an oven drying session.

2.3.2 Raw material grinding

Initially, a grinder machine (Figure 2.b) was used for grinding because the lemon peel had a very hard texture (Table 2). Subsequently, the material was crushed and ground even more using standard blenders. It is necessary to rinse the powdered lemon peel with hot water and bake it for 12 hours at 60 ºC. They were sieved and utilized as an adsorbent after drying. The source of the CR dye was Across Organics. The Panasonic MX-AC210S model of blender was utilized throughout the grinding procedure.

2.3.3 Sieving

Sieving was performed after grinding the lemon peel. A small sieve with a mesh size of 1 mm was used for sieving (Figure 2.c).

2.4 Chemical Activation process of LP

For chemical activation different doses of Acid-Base ratio was used.

· Five types of chemically activated material were prepared in this research based on the material-chemical (acid-base) ratios. The material-chemical ratio was selected in this research were,

In case of acid activation,

Lemon peel powder (LPP): H₃PO₄ = 1:1

Lemon peel powder (LPP): H₃PO₄ = 1:2

Lemon peel powder (LPP): H₃PO₄ = 1:3

Lemon peel powder (LPP): H₃PO₄ = 1:4

Lemon peel powder (LPP): H₃PO₄ = 1:5

In case of base activation,

Lemon peel powder (LPP): KOH = 1:1

Lemon peel powder (LPP): KOH = 1:2

Lemon peel powder (LPP): KOH = 1:3

Lemon peel powder (LPP): KOH = 1:4

Lemon peel powder (LPP): KOH = 1:5

This material-chemical ratio was kept in the case of the LPP - H₃PO₄ weight/volume ratio (Figure 3) and in the case of the LPP - KOH weight/weight ratio (Figure 4).

· The solutions of KOH and H₃PO₄were made and can be kept in different beakers.

· The solution of acid and base must be directly added to the lemon peel powder, and deionized water must also be combined with the mixes. For twenty-four hours, the samples were stored at 25 °C in a 100 mL beaker (Novera et al., 2021).

· The neutralization of the material was conducted the next day after separating it from the aqueous solution by washing it with distilled water, and pH had to be observed. Then have to keep it in an oven for drying until a constant weight is obtained.

· Soon after that, the material was kept in the oven for drying, and the drying was prolonged until a constant weight was obtained.

2.5 Stock solution preparation

To create a 1000 mg L⁻¹ stock solution, dissolve 1 g of CR dye in 1000 mL of water (Chawla et al., 2017). Then from the 1000 ppm solution, I prepared 20 ppm, 40 ppm, 60 ppm, 80 ppm, and 100 ppm respectively (Figure 5).

2.6 Adsorption methodology

Procedure for removing the percentage of dye from the CR dye solution with respect to time:

· The adsorption experiments were conducted in 10 mL of 100 ppm CR solution with 0.5 g of chemically activated material prepared by the earlier stated procedure.

· The CR solutions containing the chemically activated material were arranged in a magnetic steer.

· After that, an adsorption experiment was conducted for chemically activated material with different material-chemical ratios in the magnetic steer at various times (from 20 to 100 minutes) to ascertain the ideal adsorption time for the greatest possible elimination of CR

· The solutions were centrifuged with a centrifugal machine (D-78532) at 10 rpm for two minutes and then subjected to quantitative analysis (Figure 6).

· The solution's absorbance yielded the elimination % of the chemically activated substance with the help of a spectrophotometer at 480 nm for CR solution. The amount of CR absorbed by the chemically activated material surface was determined by the difference between the initial and remaining concentrations of CR solution.

· The equation for removal percentage can be expressed as following:

Procedure for determining the impact of the initial CR dye concentration uptake by activated LP.

The determination of the impact of the initial CR dye concentration was conducted after carrying out the experiment of removing the dye percentage from the CR solution. With respect to time, the experiment will be conducted at the most efficient time observed in the previous experiment. It consisted of obeying the following procedures:

· In this case, instead of adjusting the actual dose, a variation was made in the concentration of the solution (5 to 10 ppm) in order to obtain the optimum dose.

· The CR solutions containing the chemically activated material were shaken in the horizontal shaker at the best optimum time obtained from the former procedure of determination of the optimum dose for adsorption for the highest removal of CR.

· The solutions were centrifuged with a centrifugal machine and then subjected to quantitative analysis.

· The equation for removal percentage was the same equation that was used in the determination of the optimum time.

3.1 Adsorption of CR by chemically modified LP with respect to time

3.1.1 Removal of CR using LP modified by KOH

The percentages of CR removed by the chemically modified LP generated at various times with various KOH ratios are displayed in Figure 7. The LP's porosity rose when KOH was used as the modifying reagent. As a result, the surface area of LP grew. The elimination % of the CR with different times is significantly influenced by the LP and KOH ratio, according to the experimental data. Based on their performances, the appropriate ratio and duration were chosen Figure 7 represents the 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, and 1:5 ratios of LP and KOH expressed by LP-K1, LP-K2, LP-K3, LP-K4, and LP-K5 respectively. It also represents the time variations (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25) minutes. After using modified LP, the removal of CR has been noticed, and the removal range was found to be 36.4% to 81.197%. From Figure 3, the best removal percentage was found for LP-K4 with 80-minute contact time where 81.197% removal was found. After 80 minutes the removal percentage started to decrease. In the following study, though LP-K5 with an 80- minutes contact time removed 71.81% of CR, the contact time was higher with low differences in removal percentage.

It shows a noteworthy CR elimination rate when compared to modified sawdust and pine leaves. Pine leaf removal ranges are 41-38 % and 66-84%, respectively, for modified sawdust and pine leaves. Lemon Peel shows maximum removal of Congo Red 84.61% (Hamid, 2011).

3.1.2 Removal of CR using LP modified by H₃PO₄

Figure 8 displays the percentages of CR removed by chemically modified LP generated at various times with various H₃PO₄ ratios. The porosity of the CR rose when H₃PO₄ was used as the modifying reagent. As a result, CR's surface area rose. According to experimental results, H₃PO₄ and LP have a significant impact on the elimination percentage of the CR across different time periods. A Suitable proportion and duration were chosen based on their respective performances. The LP and H₃PO₄ ratios of 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, and 1:5 are shown in Figure 8 as LP-H1, LP-H2, LP-H3, LP-H4, and LP-H5, respectively. The time variations (20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 minutes) are likewise represented by it. Following the application of modified LP, the removal of CR was observed, with a removal range of 46.24% to 86.86%. Based on Figure 8, it was determined that LP-H3, with an 80-minute contact duration and an 86.86% removal rate, has the best CR removal percentage. 80 minutes is the ideal duration for LP-H3, because after that point, the elimination percentage started to decline.In a study, it indicates that, following batch mode experiments, there was a determination of 84.3% adsorptive elimination of Congo red (CR) on processed watermelon (PWM) at 30 minutes, and 95% on its acid modification and citric acid-treated PWM as (CPWM) at 25 minutes (Table 1). However, there was a determination of 75.7% on water chestnuts (PWC) at 40 minutes and 97.2% on citric acid-treated water chestnuts (CPWC) (Hussain et al., 2022).

Here, this experiment determined that H₃PO₄ with an 80-minute contact duration shows the best CR removal percentage is 86.86%.

3.2. Adsorption of CR by chemically modified LP with respect to initial dye concentration

3.2.1 Adsorption of CR using modified LP by KOH

As the initial concentration of CR increases, the adsorption capacity for CR increased. The modified LP by KOH revealed an adsorption range of 38.94% to 83.53%. With an 80-minute contact duration, LP-K4 was shown to be the most effective adsorbent for the adsorption of CR modified by KOH (Figure 9).

Thus, using these ratios and contact times, different CR concentration removal experiments were carried out, with 83.53% adsorption occurring at 100 ppm, which showed the most effective outcome.

3.2.2 Removal of varied CR doses using modified LP by H₃PO₄

According to figure 10, the most efficient adsorbent for CR adsorption modified by H₃PO₄ was found to be LP-H3, with a contact time of 80 minutes. Thus, using these ratios and contact times, different CR concentration removal experiments were carried out, with the greatest effective result being 89.03% adsorption at 100 ppm.

The higher the concentration of CR, the greater the adsorption ability for CR. Under the experimental conditions of an initial dye concentration of 90 mg/L and a contact period of 84 minutes, 88% of the dye was removed from the actual textile wastewater and 96% from the aqueous solution (Sime et al., 2023). The adsorption capacity of Hevea brasiliensis seed shells (HBSS) activated with H₃PO₄ (PHBSS) and NaCl (SHBSS) to CR was 55.87 and 50.51 mg/g, respectively. H₃PO₄ was a more efficient activating agent for HBSS than NaCl (Igwegbe et al., 2021).

3.3. Adsorption experiments investigation

3.3.1. Adsorption isotherms

Equation (1) was utilized to calculate the percentage of removal or elimination (%).

3.3.1.1. Langmuir isothermal expression

In order to examine the equilibrium data, different isotherm equations are provided in the literature. In this work, Equation (3). represents the Langmuir isotherm in linear form (Bukhari et al., 2022).

Where, q_e is the quantity of CR dye adsorbed per unit weight of adsorbent (mg g^–1), C_e is the dye concentration in the solution at equilibrium (mg L^–1), Q_m is the adsorption capacity (mg g^–1), and K_L is the adsorption energy or Langmuir constant.

Figure 11 shows the graphic representation of the plotting of linear models of the Langmuir isotherm to ascertain the adsorption pattern of KOH and H₃PO₄.

Equations (2) and (1) are used to calculate the adsorption capacity and percentage removal (R%) of CR, respectively. In equation (2), V is the volume of adsorbate in dm³, while (m) is related to the mass of each adsorbent used in the experimental work. q_max (mgg^-1) is the highest adsorption capacity (Praipipat et al., 2022).
The maximum adsorption capacities (q_max) of the KOH and H₃PO₄ adsorbents are 6.71186 and 3.943529, respectively, whereas the correlation coefficients (R²) for the adsorption of CR on these two adsorbents in the Langmuir isotherm are 0.97929 and 0.98936, respectively (Table 3). For the adsorbents KOH and H₃PO₄, the Langmuir constants, or "K_L" (adsorption energy), are 3.703455 and 8.578484 (L/mg), respectively.

3.3.1.2. Freundlich isothermal expression

The equation represents the Freundlich isotherm in its linear version Equation (4).

where, K_F(mg g⁻¹) represents Freundlich constant.

Figure 12 shows the graphic representation of the plotting of linear models of Freundlich to predict the adsorption pattern of KOH and H₃PO₄. The Freundlich adsorption constants K_F (mg. L^-1) × (L.mg^-1)1/n are linked to adsorption intensity and adsorption capacity, respectively. Table 3 is a tabulation of this isotherm's significant determined parameters (Bukhari et al., 2022; Praipipat et al., 2022). Less surface heterogeneity is indicated by the correlation coefficients (R²) for the adsorptive removal of CR on KOH and H₃PO₄, which are 0.68201 and 0.78378, respectively. Table 3 contains a tabulation of the significant parameters.

3.3.1.3. Temkin isothermal expression

Figure 13 shows a graphic representation of the heat of adsorption (B_T) of CR on chemically treated adsorbent surfaces.

Plotting (q_e vs. ln C_e) as shown in Figure 13 and utilizing the linear relation provided in Equation (5) are the methods used to obtain the Temkin constants B_Tand K_T.

q_e = B_T lnK_T + B_T lnC_e (5).

In the given situation, K_T represents the equilibrium binding constant and B_T (kJmol^-1) represents the heat of adsorption. Determine the type of dye interaction on the surfaces of each modified and unmodified adsorbent by looking at the heat of adsorption (B_T) values found in Table 3, which are derived from linear Equation (5) (Praipipat et al., 2022). Adsorbate-adsorbent connections in Table 3 are stronger, as seen by the larger values of B_T of 3.74558 and 7.18548 J/mole for chemically modified adsorbents with KOH and H₃PO₄, respectively.

This study's goal is to determine how the chemically activated LP adsorbent is affected by contact time and dye concentration. Strong acid H₃PO₄ may modify LP-H5 to remove 82.367% of the CR in 60 minutes of contact time, while strong base KOH can modify LP-K5 to remove 71.81% of the CR in 80 minutes. Furthermore, LP-K4, altered by strong base KOH, has the ability to eliminate 81.197% of CR, whereas LP-H3, altered by strong acid H₃PO₄, can eliminate 86.86% of CR in just 80 minutes of contact hours. In order to improve the proportion of CR dye removed by lemon peel, H₃PO₄ acid is more effective, and 80 and 60 minutes, respectively, are the ideal contact times. The correlation coefficients (R²) for the linear Langmuir isotherm is 0.97929 and 0.98936, which are fairly close to unity. However, the Freundlich and Temkin isotherms show less unity, and H₃PO₄ exhibits the best result when compared to KOH. The linear Langmuir isothermal studies have q_max values of 6.71186 and 3.943529 mg/g, respectively, indicating that KOH is more effective than H₃PO₄. In this study, an attempt has been made to determine the best efficiency of chemically activated lemon peel against time, dye concentration, and the ratio between source material and chemicals. However, the study fails to demonstrate its performance against some other important parameters, such as pH and temperature. Thus, LP was a promising and inexpensive medium for the adsorption of CR dyes, and it could find usage in industrial settings. Future research should look into competing ions like magnesium (Mg²⁺), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), sodium (Na⁺), and natural organic matter (NOM) that are contaminated in wastewater. The continuous flow study also necessitates investigating workable applications in the treatment of industrial wastewater.

CR	Congo Red
LP	Lemon Peel
AC	Activated Carbon
DO	Dissolve Oxygen
BOD	Biological Oxygen Demand
COD	Chemical Oxygen Demand
g	Gram
ml	Milliliter
mm	Millimeter
	Degree Celsius
rpm	Rotation Per Minute
nm	Nanometer

Author Contribution

M.M. and P.B.A. wrote the main manuscript text and M.M.S.R. supervise the study. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Data Availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Table 1 Congo Red (CR) adsorption capability of the adsorbents of the previous studies.

Name of adsorbents	Removal capacity (%)	Reference
Saw dust	90%	(Nimkar & Chavan, 2014).
multi walled carbon nanotubes	92%	(Zare et al., 2015)
Cyanoguanidine-modified chitosan	85.59%	(Al-Harby et al., 2021)
Bottom ash	96.95%	(Mittal et al., 2009)
Deoiled soya	97.14%	(Mittal et al., 2009)
Bael shell carbon	92%	(Ahmad & Kumar, 2010)
Guava leaf	86.84%	(Ojedokun & Bello, 2016)
Rice husk ash	98.835%	(Chowdhury et al., 2009)
Processed watermelon	84.3%	(Hussain et al., 2022)

Table 2 Instruments and chemical reagents used for the Congo red dye removal (in laboratory)

Instruments	Chemical Reagents	References
1. Lemon peel	1. H₃PO₄ 2. KOH	(Türkmen et al., 2022; Igwegbe et al., 2021)
2. Congo Red
3. Beaker
4. Grinder
5. Distilled water
6. Oven
7. Centrifugal machine
8. Magnetic steer
9. pH meter
10. Filter paper
11. Spectrophotometer

Table 3 Comparative linear isothermal studies for adsorptive removal of CR dye

Isotherm model	Parameter	CR on KOH	CR on H₃PO₄
Langmuir isotherm	R²	0.97929	0.98936
	q_max(mgg^-1)	6.71186	3.943529
	K_L (L/mg)	3.703455	8.578484
Freundlich isotherm	R²	0.68201	0.78378
	1/n	0.20277	0.34935
	K_F(mg/g) (L/mg)1/n	10.54775	7.53756
Temkin isotherm	R²	0.67489	0.8539
	b_T(J/mol)	3.74558	7.18548
	K_T(L mg^-1)	10.1295	1.177207

No competing interests reported.

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Removal of Congo Red Dye by Using Chemically Activated Lemon Peel Adsorbent

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