Validating the Theory of Planned Behavior in Translation Education: A Higher-Order Construct Model Approach

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4725414/v1

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Validating the Theory of Planned Behavior in Translation Education: A Higher-Order Construct Model Approach

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4725414/v1

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Translation education is crucial for global communication, yet it lacks research focus. This study validates the four psychological constructs of Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) in translation education using Reflective-Reflective Higher-Order Construct (R-R HOC) model. A new 11-item TPB questionnaire was designed to fit translation education programs (3 item measure intention, 3 items measure attitude towards behavior (AB), 3 items measure subjective norm (SN), and 2 items measure perceived behavioral control (PBC), in addition to an open-ended question. 45 undergraduate and graduate translation students responded to the questionnaire in several Saudi universities. The results were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. The results of R-R HOC model show validation of the TPB questionnaire items in translation education programs; and the usefulness of following new statistical procedures to analyze the TPB. Analysis of the differences between TPB four constructs and participants' genders and level of education show no significant results. The qualitative analysis of the open-ended question through thematic analysis reveals a strong desire for translation students to prioritize practical training, specialized translation tracks, and technological integration, alongside a call for modernizing curriculum and teaching methods. The findings demonstrate the importance of understanding the participants' intention, AB, SN, and PBC in translation education program. The results also show the usefulness of using social psychology theories in translation education programs and the use of advanced statistical procedures such as R-R HOC to validate theoretical frameworks. The findings also suggest that in homogeneous samples such as Saudi context; there is no big variance in participants beliefs in terms of genders and level of education. Policymakers and educators should consider the students' social psychology views when designing curriculum and educational researchers should borrow a theory from other discipline and use more advanced statistical procedures to analyze the closed-ended questionnaire items.

Translation education

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Reflective-Reflective Higher-Order Construct Model (R-R HOC)

Intention

Students' beliefs

Translation education is an important academic field in today’s globalized world, facilitating cross-cultural communication and understanding (Pym, 2023). It serves as a bridge between languages and cultures, enabling the exchange of ideas, knowledge, and values. Despite its critical importance in fostering global connections and promoting multilingualism, the field of translation often operates in the background, unnoticed yet integral to numerous aspects of international relations, business, and scholarship (Lange, Monticelli, & Rundle, 2024). Despite their importance, translation education and training have traditionally received less attention in the broader academic and professional landscapes (Laviosa & Falco, 2022; Massey, 2019). This oversight is particularly evident in comparison to the focus placed on direct language learning and teaching methodologies.

Social psychology offers valuable insights into educational training programs, particularly in understanding how individuals’ beliefs, motivations, and social interactions influence their learning processes (Kassin, Fein, & Markus, 2024). By applying social psychological principles, educators can develop more effective teaching strategies that account for the diverse attitudes, motivation levels, and social dynamics of students (Shao & Parkinson, 2024). Social psychological principles can lead to more engaging and effective translation training programs, tailored to meet the varied needs of learners. Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) stands out for its effectiveness in predicting and understanding human behavior in a wide range of contexts, including education (Ajzen, 2020). By focusing on the roles of intention, attitude toward behavior (AB), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC), TPB provides a robust framework for analyzing the psychological factors that influence students’ decisions to engage in educational programs and their persistence in the face of challenges (Alhamami & Almosa, 2023). This study sets out with several objectives, both theoretical and practical, aimed at enhancing the field of translation education by rigorously testing the validity of Ajzen's TPB within translation education and examining the translation education students’ perspectives in Saudi universities.

Interdisciplinary research is emerging as researchers need to examine phenomena from different and combine several fields in one research project (Laursen, Motzer, & Anderson, 2022). The lines that once separated different study areas in academics are becoming more blended. Researchers are now seeing that to really understand complex subjects, they should not look at them through just one area of study. This leads to a growing number of studies that mix up ideas and ways of doing things from more than one field. This current research exemplifies the benefits of interdisciplinary inquiry. It explores the intersection of three distinct but interconnected fields: translation, education, and social psychology. In the field of translation, interdisciplinary research is needed (Bowker, 2021; Rundle, 2014). For example, the field of psychology of translation is still undeveloped as a scholarly discipline (Hubscher-Davidson & Lehr, 2022; Robinson, 2019). Examining students' psychological factors will help curriculum designers to design better curriculum and help instructors understand their students. Moreover, some researchers (e.g., Robinson 2019) suggest that translation students take psychology courses to understand human behavior.

The significance of learners' attitudes is underscored. Researchers (Alhamami 2022; Thompson 2021) have highlighted that language students' progress is influenced by their outlook toward the task of language acquisition. Those who approach translation studies with a positive mindset tend to persist in the face of challenges and are more likely to attain proficiency in additional languages. Conversely, students who harbor negative attitudes may find their learning impeded, often struggling to fully engage with the complexities of translation. The notion of attitude is a well-founded concept within the realm of social psychology research. This study adopts Ajzen's (2005) concept of AB to investigate translation students' perceptions of translation programs and careers in translation education. AB is “the individual’s positive or negative evaluation of performing a particular behavior of interest” (Ajzen, 2005, p. 118). In the context of this study, AB involves students' perceptions—whether positive or negative—about engaging in translation programs and envisioning a career in translation education. This construct seeks to uncover how students value the act of learning and practicing translation within a structured academic setting.

Social pressure around the students is a crucial area to be investigated. Students' beliefs are shaped by the perspectives and opinions of those around them, which impact their future aspirations and attitudes towards education (Alhamami, 2020). The social pressure influencing language learning originates from the communities’ surrounding learners, whose beliefs are shaped by significant others such as family, classmates, friends, and teachers (Alhamami, 2020; Aragão, 2011). These beliefs can lead learners to develop either positive or negative attitudes towards their learning environments. The opinions of family and relatives play a crucial role in shaping learners' attitudes, as highlighted by Hollebeke, Struys, and Agirdag (2023). Social psychologists such as Ajzen (2005) consider SN as main predictor of human future behavior. Ajzen, 2005 defines SN as the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform a certain behavior. SN, integral to Ajzen’s theory, highlights that SN is shaped by normative beliefs about the expectations and behaviors of key social figures, such as school principals, colleagues, parents, and classmates. In the context of translation studies, this study employs Ajzen’s understanding of SN to explore how translation students perceive social pressures from these significant figures regarding their engagement in translation education and their career choices in this field.

For translation education students, it's crucial to understand that one of the most influential beliefs impacting behavior is the belief in one's own ability to handle various situations effectively (Yang, Cao & Huo, 2021). The concept of self-efficacy, introduced by Bandura, underlines the idea that believing in one's ability to achieve goals is fundamental to taking action and persisting despite challenges (Bandura, 2006). In the field of translation studies, just as in other disciplines, this sense of personal efficacy can motivate students to engage with complex tasks, strive for higher proficiency levels, and navigate the difficulties of language acquisition with resilience (Brashi, 2022; Cifuentes-Férez, López, & López, 2024). This study incorporates Ajzen's concept of PBC, defined as a learner's confidence in their capacity to carry out translation-related tasks (Ajzen, 2005). Ajzen (2002) clarifies that PBC is distinct from other concepts like self-efficacy and locus of control, as it encompasses both the perceived ease or difficulty of engaging in translation activities (self-efficacy) and the degree to which individuals feel these activities are within their control (controllability). In essence, PBC is influenced by learners' beliefs about factors that may either enable or hinder their ability to perform translation tasks, mirroring the expectancy-value model of attitude which suggests that our actions are influenced by our expectations and the value we ascribe to the outcomes.

In translation education programs, students' intentions play a crucial role as they reveal insights into their professional aspirations and predict classroom engagement (Alhamami, 2018). Recognizing intentions is vital, as they serve as a gauge for future behaviors (Ajzen, 2006), allowing educators in translation studies to preemptively understand the actions, expectations, and likely success of their students. Ajzen (2006) underlined that intentions reflect the motivational dynamics influencing behaviors, highlighting that the intensity of a student's intention correlates with their willingness to exert effort and their probable engagement in translation tasks. Strong intentions to pursue translation expertise suggest a greater propensity for students to invest effort and achieve proficiency in translation practices (Ajzen, 2006). Beside psychological factors (e.g., AB, SN, PBC, and intention) translation students' beliefs might be influenced by their genders and level of education; graduate or undergraduate.

Significance of Study and Research Questions

This study examines the significant yet under-researched domain of translation education in Saudi universities, using Ajzen's TPB as a conceptual lens. It aims to enrich the existing body of knowledge by highlighting the perspectives and experiences of translation students. Despite the recognized importance of understanding students' motivations, challenges, attitudes, and social pressures, these factors have not been thoroughly explored within the context of translation education programs. The study rigorously tests the validity of Ajzen's TPB in these programs, particularly ensuring that the adaptation of questionnaire items accurately captures TPB's latent constructs.

The research focuses on validating TPB questionnaire items by assessing intention, AB, SN, and PBC. Utilizing a Reflective-Reflective Higher-Order Construct (R-R HOC) model within partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), the study seeks to confirm the reliability and validity of these items for translation education. Although there has been a significant increase in the volume of research papers exploring Ajzen's TPB, the originality of these contributions is often constrained by redundant analytical approaches. Figure 1 illustrates the new theoretical model of Ajzen's TPB to fit the higher-order model or Hierarchical component model. Researchers (e.g., Ferrão, 2022; Tight, 2018) underscored the necessity for more inventive analytical methods and emphasized that a number of educational studies merely replicate analytical processes previously executed in alternate settings.

The guiding research questions are as follows:

To what extent can translation education researchers utilize theories from other disciplines such as social psychology?

To what extent is it useful to apply different statistical analysis procedures to TPB considering different hierarchical of the constructs?

What are the effects of genders and qualifications of translation students on the TPB four constructs (intention, AB, SN, and PBC)

What are the current students' perspectives in translation education programs that can assist policymakers and educators to enhance the translation programs?

Addressing these questions will not only augment the academic literature on translation education but also support the development of practical interventions to improve translation training programs, ultimately creating a more supportive and effective learning environment for aspiring translators.

Sample

The sample for this study consisted of 45 undergraduate and graduate students who completed the questionnaire from ten different Saudi universities. The distribution of participants from each institution is as follows: King Khalid University had 13 students (28.9%), Najran University had 9 students (20%), and Taibah University had 6 students (13.33%). King Saud University was represented by 5 students (11.1%), and one student each from Al Jouf University, Bisha University, Imam Abdulrahman University, Imam Mohammad University, Qassim University, and Taibah University, each constituting 2.2% of the total sample.

In terms of the educational level of the participants, the majority were enrolled in bachelor’s degree (BA) programs, with 33 students accounting for 73.3% of the sample, while 12 students, or 26.7%, were pursuing master’s degree (MA) programs. Gender distribution among the participants showed a predominance of female students, with 29 participants or 64.4%, compared to male students, who made up 16 participants or 35.6% of the sample.

The Instrument Validity

This study employed a mixed-method questionnaire incorporating both quantitative and qualitative questions. Based on established guidelines for creating a valid and reliable TPB survey (Ajzen, 2019; Francis, et al., 2004), To ensure the content validity and cross-cultural validation of the questionnaire, the initial translation to Arabic drew from previously validated versions in related contexts, such as Arabic as a second language education (Alhamami & Almosa, 2023) and English as a medium of instruction (Alhamami, 2022). This was followed by a thorough review by three translation department professors who are native Arabic speakers and fluent in English. Their expertise contributed to culturally and linguistically adapting the items for translation education programs.

Upon incorporating their feedback, the questionnaire was divided into three sections. The first section collected biographical information, including participants' educational levels, academic institutions, and genders. The second section consisted of 12 closed-ended items measuring intention, AB, SN, and PBC in translation education using a 6-point Likert Scale. Each construct was measured by three items, arranged in a non-systematic order as suggested by Francis, et al. (2004) to ensure reliability. The third section included one open-ended question if the participants have any comments or suggestions regarding the topic of the questionnaire.

The final questionnaire was distributed via Google Forms to the instructors of translation departments in Saudi universities. This outreach leveraged personal connections and social media platforms such as Twitter and WhatsApp to reach students. Participants were encouraged to share the questionnaire link to enhance response rates. Ethical considerations were rigorously addressed by obtaining approval from the Research Ethics Committee at King Khalid University (HAPO-06-B-001). Approval No. ECM#2023 − 200, ensuring that all methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations. The committee's approval confirms compliance with the standards required for studies involving human subjects, adhering to both local regulations and the Declaration of Helsinki.

Participants were informed through an online informed consent form in Arabic about the voluntary nature of their participation. This form clearly stated that all personal data collected would be handled confidentially and used solely for research purposes. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their participation in the study. No identifying information was collected through the questionnaire, ensuring the anonymity and privacy of all participants. For further details on the questionnaire content, refer to the appendix attached as a supplementary file.

Instrument Reliability

After obtaining content validity and cross-cultural validation of questionnaire items, construct validity procedures were conducted to confirm that the questionnaire items accurately measure the constructs it is intended to measure using partial least squares-structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The researcher used an innovative procedure to analyze and validate Ajzen's TPB in translation education. Instead of using three constructs (AB, SN, PBC) to predict intention as a proxy for the planned behavior beliefs; the researcher used the four constructs (intention, AB, SN, and PBC) to predict the planned behavior beliefs using a higher-order model or a hierarchical component model. More specifically, the researcher utilized the R-R HOC model. This complex model structure incorporates a higher-order construct (HOC) which is comprised of several lower-order constructs (LOCs). Each LOC, as well as the overarching HOC, is reflective, indicating that the observable items are direct reflections of the constructs they measure. Any variation within the construct is, thus, directly mirrored by the associated items. This modification will provide accurate validation of the four constructs.

The model includes one distinct HOC: Planned Behavior Beliefs. The HOC is underpinned by four LOCs that are each measured by three distinct items as illustrated above Fig. 1. The study follows Hair, et al. (2019) guidelines on how to analyze and report PLS-SEM results of reflective measurement models. Researchers (e.g., Hair, 2019; Willaby et al., 2015) stressed that PLS-SEM is a method well-suited for analyzing composite-based path models, particularly when their goal is to predict within a theoretical framework, or when dealing with complex structural models that include a multitude of constructs, indicators, and relationships. It's advantageous for exploratory research aimed at theory development and is apt for models with formatively measured constructs. Also, PLS-SEM is also beneficial when working with smaller sample sizes. Additionally, it is a method of choice when data distribution is problematic, such as with non-normal distributions, and when subsequent analyses require scores for latent variables. These factors collectively guide the researcher in determining the suitability of PLS-SEM for the specific study needs. Thus, the researcher employed PLS-SEM using SmartPLS statistical application Version 4.0.9.8 (Ringle et al., 2022) to analyze measurement and structural models. The analysis of PLS-SEM results involved two stages (Hair, et al. 2019; Sarstedt et al., 2014).

In the first stage, the researcher evaluated indicator loadings, internal consistency reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity. The second stage focused on the structural model, assessing its predictive relevance and the significance of path coefficients. the researcher conducted a thorough collinearity assessment, determined the coefficient of determination (R²), and calculated effect sizes (f²), following Hair et al. (2019) guidelines for PLS-SEM analysis. These steps affirmed the structural model's robustness in representing the theoretical relationships proposed.

Convergent Validity and Reliability

To evaluate the construct's reliability, the researcher employed both Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability. Composite reliability emerged as the more accurate choice due to its weighted nature, as opposed to the unweighted Cronbach's alpha. The measurement model's validity was assessed through convergent and discriminant validity measures. Table 1 summarizes the indicator loadings, composite reliability, and average variance extracted (AVE) for this assessment.

Table 1
Convergent Validity and Reliability of the Lower Order Constructs (LOCs)
Construct	Item	Loading	Cronbach’s Alpha	Composite reliability (rho_a)	Composite reliability (rho_c)	AVE
Intention	Intention1	0.857	0.834	0.842	0.9	0.75
	Intention2	0.835
	Intention3	0.903
AB	AB1	0.852	0.791	0.796	0.877	0.70
	AB2	0.854
	AB3	0.81
SN	SN1	0.81	0.715	0.736	0.841	0.64
	SN2	0.699
	Sn3	0.88
PBC	PBC1	0.915	0.809	0.81	0.913	0.84
PBC	PBC3	0.918	0.809	0.81	0.913	0.84

For the construct of Intention, item loadings range from 0.835 to 0.903, which indicates a strong correlation with the underlying construct. Cronbach’s Alpha for Intention is reported at 0.834, suggesting excellent internal consistency. The composite reliability indices, rho_a and rho_c, are 0.842 and 0.9, respectively, both well above the acceptable threshold of 0.7. Furthermore, the AVE for intention is a robust 0.75, which surpasses the benchmark of 0.5, underscoring strong convergent validity.

Similarly, AB displays item loadings above 0.81, with a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.791, denoting good internal consistency. Both measures of composite reliability, 0.796 for rho_a and 0.877 for rho_c, exceed the threshold, ensuring the reliability of the construct. The AVE for AB is 0.70, confirming its convergent validity.

SN presents item loadings that are slightly more varied, ranging from 0.699 to 0.88. While still within an acceptable range, the lower loading of 0.699 may warrant further investigation. Cronbach’s Alpha for SN stands at 0.715, and the composite reliability values are 0.736 for rho_a and 0.841 for rho_c, which suggests acceptable reliability. However, the AVE for SN at 0.64 is marginally below the recommended level, indicating a potential area for improvement in measuring the variance attributed to the construct.

After deleting PBC2, PBC construct exhibits the strongest item loadings among the constructs, with values over 0.915. Cronbach’s Alpha is also high at 0.809, and both rho_a and rho_c have values above 0.81, indicative of excellent reliability. The AVE for PBC is particularly strong at 0.84, well above the desired level, ensuring a high level of convergent validity.

The higher order construct of planned behavior shows a Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.809, which speaks to the excellent internal consistency of the scale. This reliability is further supported by composite reliability values of 0.821 for rho_a and 0.853 for rho_c. However, there is a notable concern regarding the AVE, which stands at 0.35, falling short of the recommended level of 0.5. This suggests that the variance observed in the items is not fully accounted for by the planned behavior construct, indicating a need for further refinement in the scale to better capture the construct it is intended to measure.

Discriminant Validity of the Constructs

The following section evaluates the discriminant validity of the TPB questionnaire in translation education program planned behavior beliefs (HOC) and its associated LOCs: intention, AB, SN, and PBC. Discriminant validity ensures that each construct is unique and captures different phenomena. It is assessed by examining the cross-loadings of items to confirm that each item loads more strongly on its associated construct than on any other construct. This assessment is crucial to confirm that the constructs are distinct, and measure intended unique aspects. Across all items, while there are significant loadings on the planned behavior beliefs (HOC), the loadings are consistently higher on their respective LOCs, ensuring that each LOC is capturing a dimension distinct from the HOC. Table 2 illustrates the discriminant validity of Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC) and its associated LOCs.

Table 2

Discriminant Validity of the TPB Questionnaire
Items	Intention (1 LOC)	AB (2 LOC)	SN (L3 OC)	PBC (4 LOC)	Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC)
Intention1	0.863	0.204	0.309	-0.053	0.498
Intention2	0.829	0.236	0.3	0.365	0.618
Intention3	0.904	0.28	0.291	0.232	0.623
AB1	0.059	0.849	0.267	0.416	0.594
AB2	0.107	0.852	0.343	0.347	0.619
AB3	0.471	0.814	0.368	0.434	0.772
SN1	0.086	0.166	0.805	0.065	0.386
SN2	0.407	0.306	0.706	0.11	0.546
SN3	0.28	0.416	0.877	0.174	0.621
PBC1	0.116	0.47	0.181	0.914	0.568
PBC3	0.299	0.411	0.106	0.919	0.587
note, PBC2 was deleted to increase the reliability of the construct.

The reported loadings in Table 2 show that each item associated with the LOCs - Intention, AB, SN, and PBC - tends to load most strongly on its corresponding construct. This indicates clear evidence of discriminant validity. For instance, items labeled 'Intention1', 'Intention2', and 'Intention3' show higher loadings on the Intention construct (ranging from 0.829 to 0.904) than on AB, SN, PBC, or the higher construct of Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC). These patterns are replicated across the AB, SN, and PBC constructs.

Evaluation of the HOC in the Structural Model

R-R HOC model

Figure 2 presents the analysis of a R-R HOC that incorporates a novel approach to the TPB. The model introduces a single HOC, namely Planned Behavior Beliefs, which is operationalized through four LOCs: Intention, AB, SN, and PBC. Each LOC is measured by multiple indicators, with Intention, AB, and SN each having three indicators, while PBC is measured by two. The indicators are reflective in nature, meaning that they are manifestations of the underlying construct they measure. The loadings of the indicators on their respective LOCs are robust, with values above the commonly accepted threshold of 0.7, signifying that the indicators are strong reflections of their respective LOCs. For example, the PBC construct has loadings of 0.914 and 0.919 for its two indicators, PBC1 and PBC3, respectively. These high loadings demonstrate a strong relationship between the indicators and the PBC construct.

Also, Fig. 2 shows that the path coefficients between the LOCs and the HOC are positive, indicating a supportive relationship in the hypothesized direction. Notably, AB exhibits the strongest direct effect on Planned Behavior Beliefs with a path coefficient of 0.802. The Squared Multiple Correlations (R² values) for the LOCs—displayed within the circles of the diagram—reveal the proportion of variance in the construct accounted for by its indicators. For instance, PBC's R² value is 0.397, indicating that nearly 40% of the variance in PBC is explained by its indicators.

First, the VIF analysis across all constructs related to intention, AB, SN, PBC indicates that multicollinearity is not a significant concern in the current dataset. All VIF values are below the threshold of 5, with most being considerably lower, suggesting that the predictor constructs are relatively independent, and the regression estimates are stable. This allows for a high degree of confidence in the structural model evaluation and the subsequent interpretation of the path coefficients derived from it.

The structural model assessment includes analysis of the path coefficients (original sample), the mean of the bootstrap samples (sample mean), the standard deviation of the bootstrap samples (STDEV), T statistics (|O/STDEV|), and P values for each path. Additionally, the effect size (f²) for the HOC and the coefficient of determination (R²) for each LOC are reported in Table 3.

Table 3
Structural Model Evaluation
HOC	F2	LOC	R2	Original sample (O) (path coefficient)	Sample mean (M)	Standard deviation (STDEV)	T statistics (\|O/STDEV\|)	P value
Planned Behavior Beliefs	0.841	Intention	0.457	0.676	0.671	0.151	4.488	0
	1.805	AB	0.644	0.802	0.817	0.055	14.557	0
	0.821	SN	0.451	0.672	0.671	0.137	4.886	0
	0.659	PBC	0.397	0.63	0.637	0.173	3.636	0

Intention (LOC): A high effect size (f² = 0.841) and a path coefficient of 0.676 indicate a strong impact of Planned Behavior Beliefs on Intention, explaining 45.7% of its variance (R² = 0.457), with statistical significance (P value = 0). AB (LOC): An extremely strong effect size (f² = 1.805) with a path coefficient of 0.802 demonstrates a very high impact, accounting for 64.4% of variance in AB (R² = 0.644), statistically significant (P value = 0).

SN (LOC): A substantial effect size (f² = 0.821) and a path coefficient of 0.672 suggest a significant influence, explaining 45.1% of SN's variance (R² = 0.451), with statistical significance (P value = 0). PBC (LOC): A notable effect size (f² = 0.659) with a path coefficient of 0.63 indicates a strong impact, accounting for 39.7% of variance in PBC (R² = 0.397), statistically significant (P value = 0).

Correlation Matrix Analysis

The correlation matrix provided includes five constructs: Intention, AB, SN, PBC, and Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC). Each construct correlates with the others, with the correlation coefficient (r) ranging from − 1 to 1, where 1 indicates a perfect positive relationship, 0 indicates no relationship, and − 1 indicates a perfect negative relationship. Table 4 summarizes the correlation results.

Table 4
Correlation Matrix Among the constructs
	Intention	AB	SN	PBC	Planned Behavior Beliefs
Intention (LOC)	1
AB (LOC)	0.28	1
SN (LOC)	0.346	0.395	1
PBC (LOC)	0.228	0.48	0.156	1
Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC)	0.676	0.802	0.672	0.63	1

Intention shows a moderate to strong positive correlation with Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC) (r = 0.676), suggesting that as the level of intention increases, the planned behavior beliefs also tend to increase. Intention has a weak positive correlation with AB (LOC) (r = 0.28), SN (LOC) (r = 0.346), and PBC (LOC) (r = 0.228), indicating that these factors are related but not strongly predictive of each other.

AB exhibits a strong positive correlation with Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC) (r = 0.802), indicating that ABs are strongly associated with the beliefs about the outcomes of the behavior. AB shows moderate correlations with SN (LOC) (r = 0.395) and PBC (LOC) (r = 0.48), suggesting that attitudes towards behavior are moderately associated with SN and PBC.

SN also has a moderate to strong positive correlation with Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC) (r = 0.672). SN presents a moderate positive correlation with AB (LOC) (r = 0.395), but a weak positive correlation with PBC (LOC) (r = 0.156), indicating that SN may not be a strong predictor of PBC.

PBC shows a moderate positive correlation with Planned Behavior Beliefs (HOC) (r = 0.63). PBC Has a moderate positive correlation with AB (LOC) (r = 0.48), but a weak positive correlation with SN (LOC) (r = 0.156), suggesting that PBC might be more related to individual attitudes than to social pressures or norms.

Planned Behavior Beliefs construct demonstrates strong positive correlations with all the LOC constructs, with the highest correlation with AB (LOC) (r = 0.802), followed by SN (LOC) (r = 0.672) and PBC (LOC) (r = 0.63), implying that the beliefs about the outcomes of the behavior are closely linked to AB, SN, and PBC.

Genders and Qualifications

An independent samples t-test for BA and MA students across four constructs—intention, AB, SN, and PBC—yielded non-significant results. With p-values ranging from 0.08 to 0.92, there is no evidence to suggest differences in these constructs between the two student groups. Non-significant results suggest that the variations in mean scores for these constructs are not statistically reliable and could be attributed to random variation rather than a true difference due to the educational level of the students. Also, In the analysis of gender differences using Independent Samples T-Test, the results across all constructs were not statistically significant. The p-values are well above the conventional threshold of 0.05, indicating that any differences in mean scores between female and male participants are likely due to chance rather than a systematic gender effect.

Qualitative Results

First, the researcher read the comments and clean the data as follows. Eight participants left the questions blanks and seven wrote 'no comments' or 'thank you'. 30 participants wrote comments (22 comments were in Arabic and eight were written in English). The researcher put these 30 comments in a excel table. After reading these comments several times the researcher starts to code each arrow. Four major themes emerged from the data analysis.

The first theme is the emphasis on practical training and real-world application. The majority of the comments emphasize the need for more practical training and real-world application in translation courses. Students want to be able to apply the skills they are learning in the classroom to real-world situations. This could include opportunities to intern with translation companies, shadow professional translators, or participate in translation competitions. One participant wrote, "Focusing on practical training in translation, instead of only theoretical curricula". Another participant suggests "Practical application in accredited companies or offices."

The second theme is the diversification of translation specializations. There is a desire for more specialization in translation courses. Students want to be able to focus on specific areas of translation, such as medical translation, legal translation, or business translation. This would allow them to develop the specialized skills and knowledge that they need to be successful in their chosen field. One participant suggests, "offering elective courses that develop optional skills for translators, such as medical/interpretation translation and so on." Also, one wrote, "They need to bring military translation course back as the labor market for translators demands military translators."

The third theme is the incorporation of technology and computer assisted translation (CAT) tools. Many of the comments suggest that translation courses should incorporate more technology and CAT tools. CAT tools can help translators to be more efficient and accurate in their work. Additionally, students need to be familiar with the latest technologies that are used in the translation industry. This theme can be seen in the following examples "Incorporating the technological element in the teaching process, balancing between theoretical and practical teaching." Another example, "I believe that including translation texts in tests is unfair, as we are in an age of technology where translators can use CAT tools and dictionaries. Therefore, training in translation is of utmost importance."

The fourth theme is the modernization of curriculum and teaching methods. There is a general consensus that translation courses need to be modernized. This includes updating the curriculum to reflect the latest trends in the translation industry and using more engaging and effective teaching methods. Additionally, there is a need for more faculty members who have experience in the translation industry. For example, one participant wrote, "Organize training and hands-on translation workshops with supervisors who can provide feedback for improvement." Another one suggests " "Also, selecting competent faculty members to match each course appropriately."

The quantitative analysis of the study the effectiveness of implementing R-R HOC model within the framework of PLS-SEM to evaluate the robustness of the TPB as a model for examining translator training programs. This approach allows for a meticulous examination of the relationships between observed variables and their underlying latent constructs as suggested by researchers in other fields (e.g., Hair, 2019; Willaby et al., 2015). The findings confirmed the usefulness for advanced statistical procedures in higher education (Ferrão, 2020).

The findings of the study reaffirm the applicability of the TPB within translation training contexts, with notable implications for enhancing educational strategies and curricula design. The analytical robustness of PLS-SEM and the discriminant validity of the constructs lay a firm foundation for practical applications and future research endeavors to build upon. The statistical procedures to validate of the theoretical framework echo calls by other educational researchers (e.g., Tight, 2018). Ferrão (2020) reviewed statistical methods used in higher education research over the last two decades. The research involved analyzing 98 articles from 46 journals across 27 countries, mainly employing regression models. It was found that most studies lacked an explicit theoretical framework. Despite the field's considerable growth, there's a call for more innovative research contributions rather than repetitive analyses (Ferrão, 2020).

Moreover, the implementation of TPB in translation studies bridges the gap between social psychology and translation education programs. It endorses the notion that understanding the psychological underpinnings of the students is crucial for fostering competent professionals. In their edited book "The Psychology of Translation: An Interdisciplinary Approach" by Séverine Hubscher-Davidson and Caroline Lehr (2022) stressed that many branches of psychology such as social psychology have lacked visibility so far in the translation studies literature. The current study broadened the scope of translation studies by incorporating diverse psychological perspectives, emphasizing the need for innovative conceptual frameworks within translator behavior research (Bowker, 2021; Rundle, 2014).

In the reflective measurement model, the findings ascertained the reliability of constructs through both Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability. Notably, composite reliability was favored over Cronbach's alpha due to its consideration of the varying contributions of individual indicators, as revealed through their loadings, to the latent construct. The use of SmartPLS software facilitated the assessment, which showed that the composite reliability values for each LOC – Intention, AB, SN, and PBC – were above the 0.7 threshold, denoting reliable measures. However, it is critical to note that the AVE for the higher construct, Planned Behavior Beliefs, was 0.35, falling short of the 0.5 benchmark for convergent validity. This shortfall prompts further scrutiny into the construct's ability to account for the majority of the variance in its indicators.

Discriminant validity was meticulously assessed, ensuring that each construct within the TPB questionnaire for translation education programs was distinct and measured unique facets of the intended phenomenon. The Planned Behavior Beliefs construct (HOC) was especially notable; despite significant loadings, items consistently loaded higher on their respective LOCs, verifying the distinctiveness of each construct.

Turning to the structural model involving the HOC and its associated LOCs, the analysis showcased a noteworthy statistical fortitude. The VIF values all stood below the critical value of 5, mitigating any concerns of multicollinearity and ensuring independent predictor constructs. The path coefficients, together with bootstrap sampling methods, highlighted a potent and statistically significant impact of Planned Behavior Beliefs on all examined LOCs. Specifically, the R² values suggest that the higher construct explained a substantial portion of the variance in each LOC, confirming the model's conceptual strength and empirical solidity.

The correlation matrix further supports the interdependence of constructs, with Planned Behavior Beliefs demonstrating particularly robust positive correlations with each LOC. Such interconnectivity underscores the potential of the TPB model to inform behavior-change interventions by focusing on enhancing beliefs about AB, SN, and PBC, as these factors are intricately linked and pivotal to intention formation.

These results are in line with other studies that found the validation of Ajzen’s TPB not only in health and social psychology contexts but in educational related contexts such as foreign language education (e.g., Alhamami & Almosa, 2023); Dutch students’ subject choices in secondary education (Dijks, et al., 2024); blended learning adoption in higher education (Hamad, et al., 2024); teachers’ professional development (Dierendonck, et al; 2024).

When examining the role of gender and educational level (BA vs. MA) among students, independent samples t-tests revealed no statistically significant differences across the constructs of intention, AB, SN, and PBC. This uniformity suggests that these constructs operate similarly across gender and educational backgrounds within the context of this study. These findings, represented by comparable mean scores and low coefficients of variation, indicate a homogeneity of responses that transcends these demographic categories. In similar context, Alhamami (2023) found no significant difference between males and females in language proficiency, as indicated by their English for academic purposes course grades in Saudi universities. Kamaşak et al. (2021) discovered that, aside from listening difficulties, gender did not significantly impact the challenges faced by students within the Japanese undergraduate programs. Similarly, Kong and Wei (2019) observed no notable gender-related effects in Chinese universities undergraduate programs. Through the application of two independent-sample t-tests, their findings indicated no statistically significant disparities between genders, revealing that female and male scores were nearly identical.

The qualitative results demonstrate four major issues in translation education. The first issue is the practical application and real-world experience. Many comments emphasize the need for practical translation training over theoretical knowledge. Suggestions include incorporating workshops, real-life translation exercises in various organizations, and internships to provide students with hands-on experience. Respondents believe that translators need to engage more with the actual process of drafting and revising translations, much like in a professional setting. The second issue is the curriculum development and specialization. Respondents express a desire for a more diverse curriculum that includes new majors and specialized fields of translation. They want courses that explore different areas of translation, such as medical or military translation, and advocate for the addition of linguistics and English literature tracks to allow students to specialize according to their interests. The third issue is the incorporation of technology in teaching. Comments point out the importance of integrating technology into the translation curriculum. There is a call for teaching how to use computer-assisted translation (CAT) tools and digital resources, as technology is seen as integral to modern translation practices. The last issue is the improvement of teaching methods and quality. Several participants suggest improving the methods of instruction by selecting competent faculty members for each course and reducing the focus on theoretical content in favor of more practical and up-to-date topics in translation fields. There is also a call for enhancing students' self-reliance in translation and fostering enthusiasm through competitions or challenges.

Implications for Future Research and Practice

The study's findings offer a rich foundation for future research, suggesting areas for enhancing curriculum design, teaching methodologies, and assessment strategies in translation education. Specifically, it points to the necessity of integrating practical application with theoretical learning and the critical role of instructor passion and expertise in student engagement and learning outcomes. Moreover, addressing the identified challenges requires a concerted effort to provide adequate resources, innovate pedagogical approaches, and tailor assessments to better reflect real-world translation scenarios. The insights into motivational factors and course evaluations further indicate the potential for curricular adjustments to better meet student needs and aspirations, fostering a more engaging and effective learning environment.

Regarding the curriculum design and content, curriculum developers should strive for a balanced integration of theoretical knowledge and practical application in translation courses. This balance is crucial for developing both the cognitive understanding and the practical skills necessary for successful translation practice. Universities should invest in state-of-the-art interpreting tools and laboratories to simulate real-world translation environments. This would enable students to practice translation in contexts that mimic professional settings, thereby enhancing their practical skills. Curriculum should be regularly updated to reflect current trends and technologies in the translation field. This ensures that students are learning skills that are relevant and in demand in the job market.

Regarding teaching methodologies and faculty development. Educators should employ a variety of teaching methodologies that cater to different learning styles. This diversification can enhance student engagement and facilitate a deeper understanding of translation concepts. Institutions should provide ongoing professional development opportunities for faculty members to stay abreast of the latest pedagogical strategies and technological advancements in translation studies. Recruitment and training of faculty should emphasize not only academic and professional qualifications but also passion for teaching and translation. Engaged and enthusiastic instructors are key to inspiring and motivating students.

Regarding student support and resources, programs should include comprehensive language courses focusing on grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary to build the foundational language skills essential for translation. Universities should offer scholarships, grants, and access to translation software and specialized dictionaries to financially support students, especially those from diverse educational backgrounds and needs. Evaluation strategies should go beyond traditional exams to include project-based assessments, portfolios, and the use of computer-assisted translation tools. This approach can more accurately measure students' translation abilities and readiness for professional practice.

Regarding challenges and motivation, translation programs should offer more opportunities for hands-on practice, internships, and interaction with industry professionals to bridge the gap between academic training and real-world application. Programs should be designed to be flexible and inclusive, accommodating students' personal and external constraints to ensure that all have equal opportunities for success in their studies and future careers. Courses and extracurricular activities should be designed to foster students' intrinsic motivations related to career advancement, personal growth, cultural engagement, and academic knowledge. Highlighting the practical impact and relevance of translation in various spheres can enhance students' engagement and commitment to their studies.

Future research in other contexts might yield different results, particularly in more heterogeneous populations where participants speak various mother tongues and come from diverse cultural backgrounds. In these multicultural contexts, gender and level of qualification might play a more significant role in shaping participants' beliefs about translation education. A replication of TPB in other educational settings, such as teaching mathematics, arts, and music, could broaden the application of TPB in education. This would help determine if the results observed in this study apply to different educational fields and contexts. The results from this study indicate that the four TPB constructs can explain a portion of the planned behavioral beliefs. Future studies could explore additional factors contributing to planned behavioral beliefs to account for the remaining percentage. Potential factors to consider might include personality traits, previous educational experiences, or social influences outside the academic setting. Interdisciplinary research is crucial in the field of translation education, as it brings diverse perspectives and methodologies. Future studies could focus on integrating insights from psychology, sociology, or education to develop a more comprehensive understanding of translation education and its associated behavioral constructs.

While this study provides valuable insights into the application of TPB in translation education, it has limitations. The sample size of 45 participants, primarily from Saudi Arabia, might not fully represent the broader population of translation students. This could affect the generalizability of the findings to other cultural or educational contexts. Additionally, cultural influences specific to Saudi Arabia could impact the constructs measured in this study, as beliefs and attitudes towards education may vary based on cultural norms and values. Future research should consider these cultural differences when designing studies and interpreting results. By addressing these limitations and exploring the suggested future research areas, researchers can continue to build on the foundation established by this study and enhance the understanding of TPB's role in translation education and beyond.

This study contributes to the field of translation education by validating Ajzen's TPB within the context of translation education programs using the R-R HOC model. The results, derived from a new 12-item TPB questionnaire and analyzed using PLS-SEM, indicate that TPB can effectively measure the psychological constructs within translation education. The validation of these constructs—intention, AB, SN, and PBC—provides a robust framework for future research in translation education. The lack of significant differences in participants' responses based on gender and educational level suggests a consistent understanding and approach to translation education in the Saudi context. Qualitative analysis, using thematic analysis, underscores the students' strong desire for more practical training, specialized translation tracks, and technological integration. These findings point to the need for educational programs to prioritize modernizing their curriculum and adopting innovative teaching methods. The qualitative insights also highlight the importance of social psychology theories in designing translation programs.

The findings demonstrate that TPB can be a valuable tool for understanding student's planned beliefs in translation education. Policymakers and educators should consider these insights when designing curricula and educational practices. Additionally, this study encourages educational researchers to integrate theories from other disciplines and apply advanced statistical procedures for a deeper understanding of educational phenomena. Ultimately, the study's results indicate that a broader application of social psychology theories, along with innovative statistical methods, can offer a more comprehensive view of translation education's effectiveness and areas for improvement. Future research should explore other contextual factors that might influence translation education, as well as investigate additional educational settings to broaden the scope of understanding in this field.

Availability of supporting data

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy of the participants and the university databases but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

The author gratefully acknowledges the support of the Arab Observatory for Translation, an affiliate of ALECSO, for their generous funding of this work under grant no. (163/2023).

Funding Statement

This research received grant no. (163/2023) from the Arab Observatory for Translation (an affiliate of ALECSO), which is supported by the Literature, Publishing & Translation Commission in Saudi Arabia

Conflict of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Institutional Review Board Statement

An IRB approval was obtained by the Research Ethics Committee at King Khalid University (HAPO-06-B-001). Approval No. ECM#2023-200.

Author Note

Author: Munassir Alhamami is a full professor of applied linguistics at the Faculty of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University, Saudi Arabia. He received his MA degree from Trinity Western University, Canada. He received his PhD degree from University of Hawai‘i at Manoa, USA. He teaches second language studies courses in undergraduate and graduate programs at KKU. His main interests include language of instruction, language learners’ beliefs, online language learning, English for specific purposes, and mixed methods research in applied linguistics.

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No competing interests reported.

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Validating the Theory of Planned Behavior in Translation Education: A Higher-Order Construct Model Approach

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Abstract

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Introduction

Literature Review

Significance of Study and Research Questions

Methodology

Sample

The Instrument Validity

Instrument Reliability

Results

Convergent Validity and Reliability

Discriminant Validity of the Constructs

Evaluation of the HOC in the Structural Model

R-R HOC model

Correlation Matrix Analysis

Genders and Qualifications

Qualitative Results

Discussion

Implications for Future Research and Practice

Conclusion

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References

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