Effect of polysaccharide-coatings on deep-fried chicken breast physicochemical properties and nutritional composition

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4850911/v1

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Effect of polysaccharide-coatings on deep-fried chicken breast physicochemical properties and nutritional composition

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4850911/v1

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Background: Using wheat flour coating food to reduce oil absorption during frying has been explored, but many alternatives exist.

Aims: This study was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of polysaccharide coatings on the physicochemical and nutritional composition of deep-fried chicken breast.

Materials and Methods: Pre-weighed marinated cut chunks of breast muscle were immersed in a treatment batter slurry of edible flour coatings (wheat, sweet potato, cassava, and cocoyam), refrigerated, and deep-fried. The deep-fried meats were analyzed for their proximate and mineral contents, whereas breaded meats were examined for their physicochemical properties.

Results: Coating did not influence the coating yield but significantly (p<0.0001) increased frying yield and pH (p = 0.0105). Nonetheless, edible coatings had no significant impact on meat lightness (p = 0.1481), redness (p = 0.3596), and yellowness (p = 0.6852). In addition, with crude fiber and energy, which did not vary, the value of deep-fried breast muscle’s proximate composition differed significantly among treatments (p<0.05). Likewise, all mineral parameters analyzed, except magnesium, varied among treatments (p<0.05). Notably, sweet potato markedly improved physicochemical and proximate attributes among the coating materials, whereas cocoyam provided a better mineral composition than wheat flour.

Conclusion: Alternative edible coatings significantly impacted deep-fried chicken breast’s physicochemical properties and nutrient and mineral composition. These findings suggest that alternative coatings can produce healthier chicken products. However, further research on their color is needed for better product acceptability.

Animal Science

Food Science & Technology

Batter

Frying medium

Frying yield

Meat color

Mineral content

Wheat prices

Skinless chicken breast, a type of white meat, is frequently regarded as a healthier option than red meats like beef steak and pork chop because of its lower fat content (Pereira and Vicente, 2013). Chicken, being more manageable, is also subject to fewer religious restrictions (Liu et al., 2013). These attributes have led to its growing demand, with the commercial broiler industry playing a pivotal role in its global production and distribution (Jaturasitha et al., 2008). The rising demand for chicken breast has created a niche market, offering food technologists more prospects to develop various processed chicken products, such as chicken tenders and sausages. The high demand for convenient and healthy chicken-based products appeals to consumers in today’s fast-paced world (Martínez Michel et al., 2011).

Deep-frying, a simple, quick, and low-cost culinary technique, holds its popularity in the vast presence of fast-food outlets. The appeal of deep-fried foods lies in their unique flavor, golden-brown color, and crispy texture, making them highly enjoyable (Ananey-Obiri et al., 2019). Deep-fried foods are highly sought after because they are affordable, convenient, and have consistent sensory qualities. Yet, during the frying process and especially during the cooling phase, their significant fat absorption rate, estimated to be between 10 and 40 percent of the food’s overall weightiness and fat composition—is a concern with substantial societal implications (Oyom et al., 2024). Their regular intake has been linked to various health problems, which are not limited to high blood pressure, accumulation of body weight, obesity, heightened cholesterol levels, and cancers (Ananey-Obiri et al., 2020). Given the popularity of fried foods among consumers, regulatory bodies and researchers have intensified efforts to reduce fat absorption by modifying fried products and using innovative frying procedures and techniques (Liberty et al., 2019). To tackle this issue, research has been conducted on various methods to reduce fat absorption. These include applying edible coatings, battering, breading techniques, and alternative methods like microwave heating and air and vacuum frying (Korkmaz et al., 2022). Among these methods, edible coatings have shown promising effects and are considered the most effective candidates for reducing fat absorption (Adrah et al., 2022).

Studies by Liberty et al. (2019) has highlighted the critical role coating plays in reducing fat absorption by protecting against oil absorption and the heating effect of hot oil. Wheat flour, a traditional coating for food, provides a crispy, deep-fried texture with a desired flavor and golden-brown hue. This notwithstanding, wheat flour is implicated with health challenges due to gluten content, cost, and varied use by consumers, including the making of confectionaries (Okon et al., 2024).

Among other countries, Nigeria uses flour from alternative sources, including cassava, sweet potato, and cocoyam, to produce different products like biscuits, chin-chin, spaghetti, and pies. Locally, these alternative flours are also used in dishes like "fufu" and "amala," appealing to farm families in southern Nigeria (Charles et al., 200). Although rich in nutrients and bioactive compounds and viable in daily diets, their perishable nature impedes long-term use, making it crucial to process them into shelf-stable products. The varied use, combined with the unstable wheat market prices in Nigeria, raises the cost of wheat for most farm households (Balana et al., 2022). Given this, exploring alternative plant coatings such as cocoyam, sweet potato, and cassava, which are readily available, cheap, healthy, and rich in nutrients, could serve as alternative edible coatings for meat frying. This study, therefore, sought to investigate the efficacy of alternative coatings from cocoyam, sweet potato, and cassava on deep-fried chicken breasts’ physico-chemical and nutritional content.

2.1 Study area

The Department of Animal Science Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Akwa Ibom State University, Nigeria, was the site of the experiment. Regarding GPS data from 2023, the laboratory is situated between latitudes 4^o57'N and longitudes 7^o76'E and 7o45'E.

2.2 Acquisition and processing of coating materials

Fresh roots and tubers of cassava, cocoyam, and sweet potato were purchased from Abak market. They were washed thoroughly in clean water to remove any dirt or debris. Afterward, the root and tubers were peeled and finely chopped into little bits using a manual kitchen food processor before drying in an oven at a low temperature (65 ^oC) for two days. After drying, they were milled into flour and stored in airtight containers to maintain freshness and prevent moisture re-absorption (Calverley, 1998). The flour representing treatments were designated as WF (Wheat flour), SPF (Sweet potato flour), CF (Cassava flour), and CYF (Cocoyam flour).

2.3 Chicken sample processing and marination

Broiler chickens (24 in total) of 8 weeks of age were purchased at Akwa Ibom State University Commercial Farm for the study. All the birds were slaughtered (by severing the neck, allowing bleeding to occur for 2 minutes. This process was immediately followed by scalding, de-feathering, and thorough cleaning). Samples were taken from the breast muscle (approximately 300 g). Using a clean and sharp kitchen knife, the breast was cut into chunks 14 cm long and 5 cm wide in the same direction as the muscle fiber. The chunk was further cut into sizeable portions (7 x 5 cm²) in length and width before marination, as described by Jiya et al. (2014). A standardized marinade mixture was prepared for priming of the meat. The marinade formula consisted of water (1000 ml), salt, ginger, garlic, pepper, nutmeg, and mixed spices at about 5 % (each) of the weight of the chicken muscle. The meat was kept in the marinade mixture for 12 hours in a refrigerator at 4°C until ready for use (USDA, 2023).

2.4 Coating preparation and meat breading

The flour from the various treatments (1 kg) was mixed in deionized water (1000 ml) to create multiple batter formulas. The egg white was used as binders to give the batter a firm consistency following methods described by Adegoke et al. (2022). The batter slurry was applied to the pre-weighed chicken breast slices for ten seconds, and then they were let to drain for fifteen seconds. Until the liquid drainage stopped, the immersion procedure was repeated. The meat was then rolled in the flour of each treatment until a uniform coverage was attained (Adegoke et al., 2022).

2.5 Meat frying process

The breaded chicken breast muscle was fried in a frying pot with vegetable oil purchased at a grocery store at 180 - 200°C using a gas cooker as a heat source. The breaded chicken breast strips in the hot oil were turned at intervals of two minutes to obtain uniform frying (Gokalp et al., 1999). The oil temperature was regulated using a thermometer as Latif and Abdel-Aal (2011) recommended.

2.6 Coating yield and Frying yield

The formula presented by Labropoulos et al. (2013) was used to calculate the coating yield of meat. Where:

The weight of the sample before and after frying, given as a percentage, was used to determine the frying yield of chicken breasts (Adegoke et al., 2022).

2.7 Proximate and mineral analysis

The meat samples with the breading were taken to the laboratory and analyzed for proximate composition. Parameters studied include crude protein, ash, moisture, and ether extract. Another set of samples was taken from the breaded meats in each treatment and analyzed for mineral contents such as phosphorus, zinc, calcium, potassium, and iron according to the procedures outlined by AOAC (1990).

2.8 Color measurements

According to methods described by Bah et al. (2022), using a calorimeter chroma meter, the instrumental color values of the fried chicken breast samples, lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) were determined.

2.9 pH measurement

A 10 g sample of fried chicken meat, including the coating from each treatment, was ground and mixed with 9 ml of distilled water to obtain a uniform mixture. The mixture was filtered using filter paper to get a clear mixture, and the pH was measured using a pH meter. Standard buffers of 4.0 and 7.0 at 25°C were used to calibrate the pH meter before use (Alakhrash et al., 2016).

2.10 Experimental design and analytical procedure

Four treatment groups—WF (wheat flour), which was used as the control—SPF (sweet potato flour), CF (cassava flour), and CYF (cocoyam flour)—were included in the fully randomized design of the trial. The breast muscle from the slaughtered birds was breaded in the flour from each treatment. Data obtained was analyzed for the differences due to the coating medium using the One-Way Analysis of Variance technique of the GraphPad Prism Software (Version 10.20.0, 392). The Tukey pairwise comparison with a 95% confidence interval was used to separate means when there was a significant difference (P ≤ 0.05).

It has been suggested that coating the substrate can help lessen the amount of oil absorbed in fried food (Liberty et al., 2019). Three of the main components of the coating systems are starch, wheat flour, and maize flour. They have and may be used in different combinations in the batter to optimize product and processing performance. Despite the existence of other substitute sources with a high nutritional content, a variety of health-promoting bioactive chemicals, and dietary fibers with a variety of structural variations, wheat is the most widely used of these flours (Wang and Jian, 2022).

3.1 Physicochemical characteristics of breaded chicken breast

3.1.1 Coating yield

The coating yield of deep-fried chicken using different edible coating materials is presented in Fig. 1. Coating material had a non-significant (p>0.05) influence on coating yield. Except for CF treatment, higher values of coating yield were observed among CYF and SPF treatments compared to the WF (control) group. The batter’s binding characteristic, which dictates its capacity to compact more or less readily, could directly cause the increased CYF and SPF-enhancing impacts on coating yields. Good adherence between the product surface and the coating solution may have contributed to a more excellent coating pickup in general for CYF and SPF flour (Huse et al., 1998). Implying that CYF and SPF could efficiently reduce mass transfer while frying. The ability of an edible coating to effectively block out moisture, oxygen, and carbon dioxide is associated with its barrier property, which is subject to the produce’s properties, the storage environment, and the chemical makeup and structure of the polymers that form the coating (Feeney et al., 1993).

3.1.2 Frying yield

Mass heat transfer, a known phenomenon accountable for water replacement with oil in food, infers that the volume of water loss is strongly associated with oil absorption (Wang & Jian, 2022). Moisture loss attributed to cooking loss due to moisture evaporation and dripping of oil after cooking is inversely related to frying yield (Adrah et al., 2021). Figure 2 illustrates a significant (p<0.0001) difference in frying yield of the deep-fried chicken samples breaded with coating materials. Although higher frying yields were found in chicken samples breaded with sweet potato and cocoyam flour, cassava and cocoyam were not significantly different from the standard flour (wheat) used in coating meat. The substantially lower frying yield attained with wheat flour than that of sweet potato could be attributed to its low cooking and drip losses because of the viscosity and protein profile of the coating material. In line with Sothornvit (2011), coating pickup is correlated with coating viscosity because a more viscous coating solution has better adherence and provides higher pickup. Likewise, according to Karimi and Kenari’s (Karimi and Kenari, 2016) assertion, water retention in the food product is a direct consequence of film development, a factor imposed due to the edible coating protein. The findings of our study suggest that wheat flour may have formed fewer films and retained a lesser amount of water in the chicken samples. This may have contributed to a higher cooking and drip loss in chicken breast coated with wheat flour; hence, a lower frying yield was observed. In support of these assertions, increasing the protein rate of coating material significantly increases adhesion degree and yield while frying loss decreases (Kulp, 2016). The observed higher SPF frying yield-enhancing effects on chicken breast samples could also result from the gelatinization and surface change properties of the sweet potato flour used in the battering formula when exposed to heat. In edible coating, starch gelatinization as a result of samples’ exposure to heat acts as a barrier to maintain and decrease mass loss during frying (Adrah et al., 2021). With oil uptake closely related to moisture loss (Bouchon, 2009), our study’s findings imply that sweet potato flour has a low oil uptake due to its low moisture loss.

3.1.3 Meat pH

The pH of deep-fried chicken breaded with coatings is presented in Fig. 3. The variance analysis on fried-dried chicken samples indicated that coating material had a significant (p = 0.0105) influence on pH. pH, a measure of acidity or alkalinity, is a vital element that alters meat products’ water-holding capacity and texture (Mena et al., 2020). Higher pH is associated with larger pores and, as a result, higher oil absorption (Mah, 2008). Despite the high value recorded in fried-dried meat breaded with SPF, the pH values recorded in samples breaded with alternative coating materials were not different from that of the standard control (wheat flour), and all remained within the acceptable range for high-quality breaded chicken breast. While Wang et al. (2023) claimed that adding salt might counteract an acidic pH, our study's results were marginally higher than the range (5.47–5.56) they reported. Their assertion that adding salt causes pH rises was also corroborated by Mena et al. (2020).

3.1.4 Meat Colour

As shown in Fig. 4, colour assessment according to the CIELAB procedure, none of the edible coatings had a significant influence on lightness (p = 0.1481), redness (p = 0.3596), and yellowness (p = 0.6852) colour of the deep-fried chicken breast. However, it was found that alternate coating materials non-significantly caused an increase in the lightness and yellowness of the fried meat and decreased the redness compared to the standard control (wheat flour). Our findings about the impact of alternative polysaccharide coatings on the fried meat samples’ lightness contradict the conclusions of Hashim et al. (2020), who claimed that the increased reduction of sugars in cellulosic coatings decreased the lightness of fried cassava chips by increasing the degree of Maillard reaction. The comparatively low cellulose concentration in the coating material may cause discrepancies in the results of the edible coating influence on color parameters between the current study and other investigations. However, the present result supports the earlier findings of Adrah et al. (2022) despite increasing the sweet potato starch-based batter, the tristimulus colour of coated samples was not significantly influenced by the coating material used. The colour attributes of deep-fried chicken breast samples coated with alternate coating material indicate that it had no adverse effect on colour and, as a result, has a greater chance of such samples being attractive and accepted by consumers than wheat flour.

3.2 Nutrient composition of breaded chicken breast

3.2.1 Proximate composition

In this study, except for crude fiber and energy, coating materials had a significant (p<0.05) influence on the sample’s moisture content, crude protein, ash, crude fat, and carbohydrate content. A characteristic quality of deep-fried foods’ texture and consumable quality has been related to their moisture content. The deep-fried sample with SPF and CY generally recorded a lower moisture content than those coated with wheat and cocoyam. Suggesting that SPF and CY edible coating promoted higher moisture content in samples due to a more resistant crust, which may have served as a barrier to water loss. The crust thickness's structural barrier to vapor movement has been linked to increased moisture retention. The higher coating pick-up (Fig. 1) by meat samples of the alternate coating treatments (SPF and CYF) may have contributed to the crust thickness and eventually enhanced moisture retention after frying. The network formed by the edible coating on deep-fried foods prevents moisture loss, thus retaining higher moisture in the sample and reducing fat absorption (Freitas et al., 2009). Our observations are consistent with an earlier report by Chayawat and Rumpagaporn (2020), who, in their study, indicated that coated chicken nuggets with defatted rice bran showed impressive moisture retention of 52 percent.

By eliminating certain amino acids and lowering the total protein concentration, heat treatment can change the protein composition of food (Henry, 1998). Frying, a dehydrating operation, generally results in a higher protein content (Bordin et al., 2013). Our results indicated a non-inverse relationship between moisture and meat's protein contents and what is expected in meat samples. Crude protein contents of alternate material-coated samples, except CYF, were generally lower than wheat flour, which may be attributed to the nutritional composition of the respective coating materials. The lower crude protein content of SPF and CF-coated samples further supports our assertion of film development; a factor said to be possibly imposed by the edible coating protein.

Ash content was observed for all coated chicken breast samples. Among the alternate coating materials, except for CY samples, which were found to be low, those of SPF and CYF were significantly higher than those of the standard control (wheat flour), indicating that edible coating contributes to the mineral composition of processed meat.

In addition, our results indicated that the fat content of deep-fried chicken breasts coated with SPF was low compared to that of other treatments. This observation may be attributed to the low porosity of the crust formed and the surface area of samples coated with SPF, which promoted low oil absorption. Heat transfers quickly with a decreased surface area, reducing moisture loss. Having a low surface area and increased crust thickness, heat transfer fast down, leading to less contact between the oil and water vapor on the surface of the food, causing decreased oil absorption, confirming the work of Ziaiifar et al. (2008), which reported that heat transfer during cooking is related to the surface area characteristics of the food. This observation further supports our assertion that sweet potato flour has a low oil uptake due to its low moisture loss. The high CF fat uptake could be attributed to cassava's poor surface pore inhibition capacity, which may have facilitated oil migration. The process of oil absorption is recognized as a multifaceted phenomenon influenced by factors such as the initial structure of the product, interactions between the consumable product and heating medium, and variations in the product and oil properties (Ananey-Obiri et al., 2018).

However, no significant (p > 0.05) differences were observed between crude fiber and energy treatments. SPF and CF-coated samples had lower crude fiber and higher energy levels than WF and CYF-coated samples. The high carbohydrate levels of the meat breaded in SPF and CF treatment may be attributed to the high energy content in both SPF and CF, which would have impacted the meat, thereby increasing their carbohydrate levels.

3.2.2 Mineral composition

Food that has been fried does not seem to lose its mineral content significantly (Bordin et al., 2013). Owing to their water-soluble nature, mineral components mostly undergo modification while boiling (Ghidurus et al., 2010). According to several studies, foods that are fried at high temperatures (between 165 and 185°C) and during brief cooking times seem to retain minerals rather well (Gokoglu et al., 2004). The mineral composition of chicken breast-coated samples in Table 2 revealed significant differences (p<0.05) in all parameters analyzed except magnesium. Generally, except zinc and iron, which were found to be high in CF and CYF, all the alternate edible coatings in this study impacted high potassium and phosphorus in the chicken breast samples compared to those of wheat flour, implying that the edible coating material used may have a great source of minerals. However, the amount of mineral detected could also be a result of its concentration effect in the battered and breaded samples before frying (Ersoy and Özeren, 2009).

Table 1

Proximate composition of breaded chicken breast
	Coating Medium
Parameter	WF¹	SPF¹	CF¹	CYF¹	SD²	P-value
Moisture (%)	52.193^a	51.850^ab	48.117^b	54.42^a	1.550	0.007
Crude Protein (%)	16.893^a	16.293^ab	15.257^b	17.233^a	0.571	0.013
Ash (%)	3.400^c	4.433^a	2.750^d	4.100^b	0.107	0.000
Crude Fat (%)	15.000^b	14.917^c	18.767^a	15.300^b	1.482	0.036
Crude Fibre (%)	2.017	1.933	1.983	2.000	0.075	0.583
Carbohydrate	46.710^bc	51.623^a	50.44^ab	43.610^c	1.745	0.002
Energy (Kcal/Kg)	451.000	457.867	451.970	420.000	29.666	0.443
¹ WF: wheat flour; SPF: Sweet potato flour; CF: Cassava flour; CYF: Cocoyam flour.
² SD: pooled standard deviation
^abc Means within a row with different letters of superscript differ significantly.

Table 2

Mineral Composition of breaded chicken breast
	Coating Medium
Parameter (mg/100)	WF¹	SPF¹	CF¹	CYF¹	SD²	P-value
Phosphorus (P)	21.128^d	27.641^c	30.051^b	39.126^a	0.002	0.000
Potassium (K)	40.500^b	37.001^c	41.001^a	35.500^d	0.001	0.000
Zinc (Zn)	0.983^c	0.967^d	1.794^b	1.836^a	0.002	0.000
Iron (Fe)	0.649^d	0.846^c	0.941^b	0.955^a	0.002	0.000
Magnesium (Mg)	23.450	24.300	22.247	25.850	1.610	0.120
¹ WF: wheat flour; SPF: Sweet potato flour; CF: Cassava flour; CYF: Cocoyam flour.
² SD: pooled standard deviation
^abc Means within a row with different letters of superscript differ significantly.

Based on the results, chicken breast physico-chemical properties and nutrient composition improve significantly by applying alternative coatings. Using sweet potato flour improves the physico-chemical and proximate attributes, whereas cocoyam flour as a batter provides a better mineral quality. Polysaccharide coating used in processing chicken breast can provide consumers with healthier food products generated from chicken processing. Their colour should be improved through subsequent studies to promote their application and acceptability in food processing.

Source of support: This study was conducted without financial support from government, corporate, or charitable organizations.

Acknowledgment: The authors will like to sincerely appreciate the Department of Animal Science, Akwa Ibom State University, Nigeria for providing all the needed technical support, facility and equipment used for the different analysis.

Author Contribution: U.M.O. conceptualization, methodology, project administration, supervision, writing - original draft, review and editing – original draft. E.N. data curation, formal analysis, software, validation, visualization, writing - review & editing. P.P.J. resources, investigation, data collection & methodology. C.A.E. methodology, writing – review & editing. Z.H.T. methodology, writing – review & editing. Z.G. methodology, writing – review & editing.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors state that they have no conflicts of interest.

The study was approved by and all procedures involving animals were conducted following the ethical standards of the Akwa Ibom State University Ethical Review Board.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Effect of polysaccharide-coatings on deep-fried chicken breast physicochemical properties and nutritional composition

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Abstract

Figures

1 Introduction

2 Materials and Methods

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Physicochemical characteristics of breaded chicken breast

3.1.1 Coating yield

3.1.2 Frying yield

3.1.3 Meat pH

3.1.4 Meat Colour

3.2 Nutrient composition of breaded chicken breast

3.2.1 Proximate composition

3.2.2 Mineral composition

4 Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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