AVR/I/SSAPDB: A Comprehensive &amp; Specialised Knowledgebase of Antimicrobial Peptides to Combat VRSA, VISA, and VSSA

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4880352/v1

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AVR/I/SSAPDB: A Comprehensive & Specialised Knowledgebase of Antimicrobial Peptides to Combat VRSA, VISA, and VSSA

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4880352/v1

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The rise of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria, especially strains of Staphylococcus aureus like Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA), Vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus (VISA), and Vancomycin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (VSSA), poses a severe threat to global health. This situation underscores the urgent need for novel antimicrobial agents to combat these resistant strains effectively. Here, we are introducing the Anti-Vancomycin-Resistant/Intermediate/Susceptible Staphylococcus aureusPeptide Database (AVR/I/SSAPDB), a manually curated comprehensive and specialized knowledgebase dedicated to antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that target VRSA, VISA, and VSSA with clinical and non-clinical significance. Our database sources data from PubMed, cataloging 491 experimentally validated AMPs with detailed annotations on peptides, activity, and cross-references to external databases like PubMed, UniProt, PDB, and DrugBank. AVR/I/SSAPDB offers a user-friendly interface with simple to advanced search capabilities, enabling researchers to explore AMPs against VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. We are hoping that this resource will be helpful to the scientific community in developing targeted peptide-based therapeutics, providing a crucial tool for combating VRSA, VISA, and VSSA, and addressing a major public health concern. AVR/I/SSAPDB is freely accessible via any web-browser at URL: https://bblserver.org.in/avrissa/.

Antimicrobial peptides

Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus

Vancomycin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus

MDR bacteria

AVR/I/SSAPDB

The frequent and improper use of antibiotics has resulted in the rise of multi-drug resistant (MDR) bacteria. Currently, it is estimated that infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria are responsible for approximately 70,000 deaths globally each year. Without the development of new treatments, MDR bacterial infections could lead to an additional 10 million deaths annually by 2050, surpassing the mortality rate of cancer(Piddock, 2016). On a global scale, deaths associated with antibiotic resistance rank Staphylococcus aureus as the second leading killer in the world (Murray et al., 2022). Numerous diseases, such as sepsis, bacteremia, osteomyelitis, endocarditis, skin abscesses, wound infections, and deep tissue abscesses, are caused by S. aureus (Lowy, 1998).

According to data from the 1970s, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) was the primary cause of a marked rise in morbidity and healthcare-associated expenses in the United States (Haley et al., 1982).Hospitals worldwide are already experiencing enormouscases of MRSA, and the advent of community-associated (CA) MRSA has raised even more serious concerns (Kim et al., 2002). In the United States, the majority of clinical S. aureus isolates (95%) exhibit resistance to penicillin, and more than half are methicillin-resistant. Similarly, the prevalence of MRSA is a significant issue in Europe (System, 2003; Tiemersma et al., 2004).

In 2005, Vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA) strains were considered rare. However, a Turkish study found that 46 out of 256 (18%) MRSA samples collected from blood and pus between 1998 and 2002 exhibited the VISA phenotype, indicating that the prevalence of VISA strains was becoming alarming (Sancak et al., 2005). More recently, the emergence of vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA) isolates, which exhibit complete vancomycin resistance, is even more concerning (Gardete et al., 2008; Kacica et al., 2004; Tenover et al., 2004). The increased use of vancomycin to treat MRSA has led to heightened vancomycin selective pressure within the community, contributing to the emergence of more VISA and VRSA strains (Appelbaum 2006; Lomba et al., 2010).

The first glycopeptide antibiotic identified as vancomycin, offers one of the empirical treatments for MRSA infections and continues to be a cornerstone in this regard (Bamigboye et al., 2018). The first VISA from Japan was reported in 1997, having a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 8 µg/ml. Concurrently, from clinical specimens, S. aureus isolates with a heterogeneous (h)VISA phenotype (Mu3) was identified (Hiramatsu et al., 1997). The first instance of VRSA in a diabetic patient was documented in the United States in 2002 (Goldrick, 2002). The majority of research on VISA/hVISA has concentrated on drug resistance; however, further research is needed to determine how virulent VISA/hVISA is in comparison to vancomycin-sensitive S. aureus (VSSA), even though VISA is known to have a thicker cell wall (Cui et al.,2000; Howden et al., 2006; Katayama et al., 2009). MICs in the susceptible range (≤ 2 µg/mL) are displayed by hVISA, yet they also have a subpopulation that exhibits a resistant phenotype (Chen et al., 2011; Charles et al., 2004).

Earlier in vitro research revealed a number of potential pathways for vancomycin resistance in MRSA, the primary one being the cell wall's increased thickness and lower permeability, which reduces vancomycin's availability for intracellular target molecules. Plasmid-mediated vancomycin resistance genes (vanA, vanB, vanD, vanE, vanF, and vanG) may have been transferred from enterococcal species, resulting in another type of resistance (Hiramatsu et al., 1997; Francia et al., 2002; Tenover et al., 2001; Woodford, 2001). Higher rates of vancomycin treatment failure are linked to infections caused by VISA and hVISA, which are also linked to longer hospital stays, a higher risk of persistent infections, and higher treatment costs (Charles et al., 2004; Maor et al., 2009). In order to solve this problem, the current study looked into the potential causes of chronic infection by VISA as well as the capacity of VISA and VSSA strains to infect or colonize skin and soft tissue (Jin et al., 2020).

Oritavancin (a semisynthetic glycopeptide), complestatin, and corbomycin (both glycopeptides of the type V family) have been found to be effective against MRSA and VRSA strains (Zhanel et al., 2012; Culp et al., 2020). These glycopeptides work against the S. aureus cell wall through a variety of methods, such as the suppression of fatty acid synthesis and peptidoglycan formation (Zhanel et al., 2012; Culp et al., 2020). Despite these options, S. aureus-resistant strains can possess a broad range of resistance mechanisms, making it difficult to control them with the standard antibiotics currently available to treat the illnesses they cause (Jubeh et al., 2020). Given the circumstances, it is imperative to look for and develop novel antimicrobial alternatives to fight antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains likeS. aureus strains, particularly VRSA strains, which pose a serious threat to the public's health worldwide (World Health Organization, 2021).

To address the issue of increasing bacterial resistance, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a promising alternative to traditional antibiotics, showing significantly higher efficacy in killing resistant strains (Omardien et al., 2016; Yu et al., 2018;Singh et al.,2023; Anurag Anand et al., 2023). AMPs offer a potent solution for managing both antibiotic-susceptible, intermediate, and resistant bacteria, addressing serious human health threats (Bédard et al., 2019; Fan et al., 2011). AMPs are natural molecules, produced by the innate immune systems of various organisms and serve as an effective defense against infections caused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and certain protozoa (Wang et al., 2016). AMPs possess a diverse array of action mechanisms, enabling them to impact various targets of bacteriaincluding bacterial membrane damage, inhibition of protein, enzyme, and nucleic acid synthesis at the cytoplasmic level, as well as modifications to protein folding (Powers and Hancock, 2003; Yeung et al., 2011; Park et al., 1998).

To date, many AMPs have been discovered, demonstrating activity against multiple pathogenic microbes, including those that are resistant (Lei et al., 2019).Those kinds of data are already available in the literature and are more structurally available in generalized AMP databases which includeDRAMP 3.0 (Shi et al., 2022), APD3 (Wang et al., 2016),AMPDB v1 (Mondal et al., 2023), CAMP R4 (Gawde et al., 2023), DBAASP v3 (Pirtskhalava et al., 2021), dbAMP 2.0 (Jhong et al., 2022) and specilised AMP databases include Peptaibols (Whitmore and Wallace, 2004), LAMP (Zhao et al., 2013),MilkAMP (Théolier et al., 2014),BACTIBASE (Hammami et al., 2010), PhyTAMP (Hammami et al., 2009), RAPD (Li et al., 2008), ANTISTAPHYBASE (Zouhir et al., 2017), DADP (Novković et al., 2012), BaAMPs (Di Luca et al., 2015),AVPdb (Qureshi et al., 2014),SAPdb (Mathur et al., 2021),DRAVP (Liu et al., 2023),Defensins Knowledgebase (Seebah et al., 2007), InverPep (Gómez et al., 2017), YADAMP (Pitto et al., 2012),HIPdb (Qureshi et al., 2013), ANTIPSEUDOBASE (Zouhir et al., 2023), TAMRSAR (TAMRSAR, 2024). Generalized databases list all AMPs, while specialized databases focus on specific AMPs targeting particular organisms or for other perspectives.

Both generalized and specialized databases contain AMPs that can target S. aureus. However, these databases have very limited/no AMPs available specifically for targeting VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. Among the specialized databases, ANTISTAPHYBASE (Zouhir et al., 2017) (currently retired) and our own developed TAMRSAR (TAMRSAR, 2024) (specific to MRSA strains only) are dedicated to AMPs and essential oils (EOs) targeting S. aureus strains. To date, no single database provides comprehensive information on AMPs that can target VRSA, VISA, and VSSA, although these forms of S. aureus cause infections easily and have limited treatment options available (Cong et al., 2020).Several AMPs have been reported to demonstrate strong activity against VRSA, VISA, and VSSA (Hernández-Aristizábal et al., 2021), but no resource amalgamates all this information in an easily accessible manner. With this in mind, we developed a fully specialized knowledgebase namedAnti-Vancomycin-Resistant/Intermediate/Susceptible S. aureusPeptide Database(AVR/I/SSAPDB), dedicated to AMPs that can target VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. We hope this resource will be helpful to the scientific community and pharmaceutical industries in studying and developing new peptide-based therapeutics against VRSA, VISA, and VSSA.

4.1. Data curation &compilation

We used the PubMed literature database (PubMed, 2024) as the source database for curating the data. The following queries werebuilt by using PubMed advanced search facility and executed to obtain the necessary PMIDs that contain information aboutanti-vancomycin-resistant/intermediate/susceptible S. aureuspeptides(AVR/I/SSAPs).

Query 1: (antimicrobial peptide*) AND (Vancomycin-resistant S. aureus)
Query 2: ((((anti-vrsa) OR anti vrsa)) AND ((antimicrobial peptide) OR antimicrobial peptides))

As of March 23, 2024, the first query returned 392 PMIDs, and the second query returned 103 PMIDs. After collecting all the PMIDs, we consolidated them into an Excel file, resulting in 495 PMIDs. After removing duplicates, we found 403 unique PMIDs. We then reviewed each article corresponding to these PMIDs to extract the following data fields.

‘AVR/I/SSAP_ID’: An ID manually assigned to each AVR/I/SSAP. For example, the first peptide is assigned AVR/I/SSAP1, the second peptide AVR/I/SSAP2, and so on.
‘Entry_type’: Indicates whether the target organism is a clinical strain/isolate. If it is a clinical strain/isolate, the entry type is 'clinical'; otherwise, it is 'non-clinical'.
‘Peptide_name’: The name of the AVR/I/SSAP.
‘Sequence’: The sequence of the AVR/I/SSAP, as found in the source article.
‘Length’: The length of the AVR/I/SSAP. Here, we only counted the amino acid residues, excluding special compounds (e.g., Ac).
‘Source’: The specific biological component(s) or body part(s) of the source organism from where the AVR/I/SSAPswere isolated/collected/found. For example, melittin is found in the venom of a source organism, and persulcatusin (IP) is collected from the midgut of a source organism.
‘Source_organism’: The organism from which the AVR/I/SSAP is derived.
‘Taxonomy’: The kingdom of the source organism.
‘Target_organism’: The VRSA/VISA/VSSA targeted by the AVR/I/SSAP.
‘Inhibition_concentration’: The specific MIC/MBC/IC50/other value measuring the concentration at which an AVR/I/SSAP works against a VRSA/VISA/VSSA.
‘Toxicity_&_hemolytic_activity’: The toxicity and hemolytic activity at a particular concentration (if found) for an AVR/I/SSAP.
‘Validation’: Indicates whether the AVR/I/SSAP is experimentally validated or validated in some other way (e.g., in silico).
‘PubMed_ID’: The source article(s) from which all the above information was collected.

After collecting the above information, we gathered additional data for the following fields.

‘UniProt_ID’: Once we identified an AVR/I/SSAP, we searched its sequence against the UniProtdatabase (UniProt, 2024) using NCBI BLASTp (NCBI BLASTp, 2024). We defined parameters to get the results, including an e-value between 0 to 0.001, query coverage of 100%, and identity of 100%. We included the UniProt ID in the master dataset if the results matched these parameters.
‘PDB_ID’: We searched the PDB database (PDB, 2024) similarly to UniProt, performing a NCBIBLASTp(NCBI BLASTp, 2024) search against the PDB database.
‘DrugBank_ID’: In DrugBank (DrugBank, 2024), we searched AVR/I/SSAPs by their name (i.e., peptide name). If a match was found, we included that DrugBank ID in our master dataset.

For this version of AVR/I/SSAPDB, we only searched the above-mentioned databases (UniProt, PDB, and DrugBank) to collect the IDs of AVR/I/SSAPs (if found). These external database IDs are used as database cross-references, enhancing the usability of the master dataset.

Once we curated the data for all the above-mentioned fields from all source articles, our master dataset was ready to upload to the backend.

4.2. Backend & frontend development

The backend of AVR/I/SSAPDB operates on an HTTPS server, utilizing PhpMyAdmin (version 5.1.1) to manage a MySQL database (version 5.7.36) efficiently. The frontend was developed using HTML5, CSS3, and Bootstrap5 to ensure responsiveness, along with JavaScript, AJAX, and jQuery for creating a dynamic user interface. The connection between the frontend and backend is facilitated by PHP and SQL. For data presentation, DataTables are employed for displaying tables.

4.3. User interface (UI) of AVR/I/SSAPDB

We have tried to keep the UI as simple, interactive, and responsive as possible. The various components of the UI are discussed below. Figure 1 shows some snapshots of the UI of AVR/I/SSAPDB.

4.3.1. Home: This is the homepage of AVR/I/SSAPDB, where a simple introduction about the knowledgebase is displayed.

4.3.2. Search: This is the basic text search facility, where users can search with any term related to AVR/I/SSAPs. A help button is provided to assist users. On this same page, 3 more buttons are provided to enhance the search experience, which are as follows:

4.3.2.1. Advanced Search: When users click this button, the advanced search facility will appear. Users can build any query by combining specific fields like ‘entry type’, ‘name of the peptide’, ‘length’, ‘source organism’, and more with operators like ‘AND’, ‘OR’, and ‘NOT’. Once the query is built, users can click on ‘search’ to execute the query. Here also a help button is provided for user assistance.

4.3.2.2. AVR/I/SSAPs Source Organism List: After clicking on this button, a list of all 59 source organisms (sorted in ascending order) of AVR/I/SSAPs available in our database will be displayed. By clicking on any source organism, users can view its corresponding AVR/I/SSAPs.

4.3.2.3. Target VR/I/SSA List: A list of all VRSA, VISA, and VSSA targets (sorted in ascending order) will appear to the user when clicking on this button. There are a total of 205 targets. By clicking any VRSA/VISA/VSSA target, users can view its corresponding AVR/I/SSAPs by which the particular VRSA/VISA/VSSA strain can be targeted.

4.3.3. Retrieving Results: The search results will be displayed in a table that allows for both searching and sorting. The table includes pagination for easy navigation. Users can download selected entries, current page entries, or all entries in various formats such as TSV, LIST, JSON, FASTA, TEXT, CSV, and Custom TSV via a download button. Individual entries can be viewed by clicking on their IDs (e.g., AVR/I/SSAP110), and these can be further exported in TEXT, FASTA, and PDF formats.

4.3.4. Browse: Here, users can access and review the complete dataset of AVR/I/SSAPDB. It provides comprehensive information on all entries, allowing users to thoroughly explore the contents of this resource.

4.3.5. Statistics: On this page, the data statistics are displayed in various categories which include ‘entry type’, ‘target organisms’, ‘length’, and ‘taxonomy’. In Figure 2, the data statistics of AVR/I/SSAPDB are shown and discussed.

4.3.6. Downloads: From this page, a user can obtain the master dataset of AVR/I/SSAPDB in CSV, FASTA, TSV, XLSX, LIST, TEXT formats by clicking on the respective link.

4.3.7. News/updates:All the latest news/updates will be displayed on this page.

4.3.8. Developers: All the developers of AVR/I/SSAPDB are shown in this page with their respective details.

4.3.9. Help: The user manual of AVR/I/SSAPDB is shown in this page. This page will help the user to understand the usage and data of AVR/I/SSAPDB.

4.3.10. Contact: The contact information of the principal investigator and key technical developer is available here; users can reach us by using the contact details. Users can also reach out through the provided web form to submit any queries or concerns.

On the whole, the UI is more or less similar as our other AMP databases like AMPDB v1 (Mondal et al., 2023), and ADPDB (Mondal et al., 2024).

5.1. Insights from AVR/I/SSAPDB

AVR/I/SSAPDB is an exclusive and comprehensive knowledgebase of AVR/I/SSAPs that can be used to target VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. Currently, the knowledgebase contains 491 experimentally validated AVR/I/SSAPs (150 unique), of which 133 AVR/I/SSAPs are against clinical strains of VRSA, VISA, and VSSA, and 358 AVR/I/SSAPs are against non-clinical strains of VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. Most of the AVR/I/SSAPs (266 AVR/I/SSAPs) are synthetic, while the remaining 132 AVR/I/SSAPs come from animal species, and 93 AVR/I/SSAPs are derived from bacteria. Most of the AVR/I/SSAPs (334 AVR/I/SSAPs) range in length from 1 to 20 amino acid residues, while the remaining 154 are between 21 and 50 amino acid residues, and 3 AVR/I/SSAPs range from 51 to 200 amino acid residues.

The knowledgebase allows users to perform searches using either a simple text search or an advanced search facility. It also provides options to search through AVR/I/SSAPs source organisms or target VR/I/SSA lists, and to manipulate data as needed. The knowledgebase supports data export in various formats such as TEXT, TSV, LIST, JSON, and FASTA, allowing users to perform further analysis or development on local machines. Additionally, users can generate customized reports through the database's custom report feature. Each individual entry in the database is displayed with the following four sections for a better understanding of the data.

General Description: Includes the AVR/I/SSAPDB ID, entry type (clinical/non-clinical), peptide name, length, source, source organism, taxonomy, and validation status (whether the peptide has been validated experimentally or through in silico methods or through other methods).

Peptide Sequence: Provides the sequence of the AVR/I/SSAP.

Activity Information: Lists the target organism (along with the details of clinical isolate/strain), inhibition concentration, toxicity, and hemolytic activity.

Database Cross-References: Provides the PubMed ID(s) associated with the literature from which the data for the AVR/I/SSAPDB entry was derived. Also provides PDB ID(s), UniProt ID(s), and DrugBank ID(s) (if found).

This knowledgebase can serve as an invaluable resource for scientists, researchers, and pharmaceutical companies in the development of new peptide-based drugs and therapeutics against VRSA, VISA, and VSSA.

5.2. Comparison with other databases

As discussed earlier (in the second last paragraph of the introduction section), many generalized and specialized databases have been developed thatstore data on AMPs. These databases are crucial resources for developing new peptide-based therapeutics to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR). However, these databases aggregate data on peptides targeting a variety of organisms, making it challenging to extract specific information on particular AMPs against certain target organisms, as the data is mixed with those for other organisms, which is expected.

Specialized AMP databases focused on target organisms could address these gaps. Let's consider the databases that contain AMPs against S. aureus. ANTISTAPHYBASE, established in 2017, was a dedicated resource for AMPs and EOs targeting S. aureus (majorly), and MRSA (Zouhir et al., 2017). Despite its initial utility, ANTISTAPHYBASE has since become outdated or inactive due to the rapid expansion of data and challenges in maintenance. Nonetheless, its data remains valuable for research. Recently, we developed a new database of AMPs and EOs, named TAMRSAR, specifically targeting MRSA strains (TAMRSAR, 2024).

Aside from the aforementioned 2 databases, there are currently no dedicated databases of AMPs against S. aureus, although generalized, and a few specialized databases do contain AMPs targeting this pathogen. But, in those databases, there is very limited/no availability, of AMPs that specifically target VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. Moreover, searching withthe ‘VISA’ or ‘VRSA’ or ‘VSSA’ term may yield unexpected results since this term can appear in the names of any of the target organisms listed in those databases. Similarly, searches for VRSA often do not yield results; instead, searches must be conducted using the term ‘Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus’. These issues arise because these resources are not target organism-specific, so no specific target organism nomenclature is there, which is also expected.

To date, there is no database of AMPs specifically targeting VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. Although VRSA, VISA, and VSSA are highly antibiotic-resistant strains of S. aureus, the diseases caused by these strains can be life-threatening, and traditional drugs may be ineffective (Cong et al., 2020). In such cases, AMPs specifically targeting VRSA, VISA, and VSSA can be a better alternative. Keeping this in mind, we developed AVR/I/SSAPDB, the first dedicated knowledgebase of AMPs (specifically AVR/I/SSAPs) targeting VRSA, VISA, and VSSA. In this database, we addressed search-related issues by maintaining a unified nomenclature for target organisms, including only target organism termslike ‘VRSA’, ‘VISA’, and ‘VSSA’. Additionally, we have provided a list of target organisms under the 'Target VR/I/SSA List' button in this regard to enhance user experience. In this version of AVR/I/SSAPDB, no sequence alignment tools (like BLAST or MUSCLE) or AVR/I/SSAP prediction tools are incorporated. However, we plan to include these features in future versions.

As per our knowledge, AVR/I/SSAPDB is the first dedicated resource specifically targeting VRSA, VISA, and VSSA, marking a pivotal advancement in the ongoing battle against MDR bacteria. The escalating threat posed by these resistant pathogens necessitates the development of novel therapeutic strategies, and AMPs have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional antibiotics. This knowledgebase serves as a specialized repository, meticulously curated to provide comprehensive information on AMPs (specifically AVR/I/SSAPs) effective against these resistant strains, thereby bridging a critical gap in current antimicrobial research resources. Currently, the knowledgebase houses 491 AVR/I/SSAPs (150 unique) with clinical and non-clinical significance. We have tried to make the knowledgebase as simple and feature-rich as possible, although there are a few limitations. We hope that this first version of the knowledgebase will provide a specialized resource for researchers and pharmaceutical industries to aid in the discovery and development of new antimicrobial agents, ultimately contributing to global efforts to combat AMR.

Last but not least, this is not the end of our work. We will persist in our efforts to design new queries to retrieve more literature from PubMed and review them to enrich the knowledgebase. We are also planning to enhance the UI by incorporating more features. Alongside these initiatives, we are developing a state-of-the-art AVR/I/SSAP prediction tool. All these improvements will be included in future versions of AVR/I/SSAPDB. We are committed to elevating the quality of the database, addressing all feedback, and consistently updating and carefully maintaining it to serve the scientific community.

All in all, AVR/I/SSAPDB represents a crucial advancement in combating antibiotic resistance by providing a comprehensive, evolving resource for the discovery and development of new antimicrobial agents.

7. Data availability

The master dataset of AVR/I/SSAPDB is publicly accessible in CSV, XLSX, TSV, FASTA, LIST, and TEXT formats at the URL: https://bblserver.org.in/avrissa/AVRISSAPDB-download

8. Author contributions

R.K.M.: Conceptualization, Data mining and curation, Data Analysis, Validation, Resource & Writing, Investigation; D.K.: Data mining and curation, Data Analysis, Validation, Resource & Writing; O.P.: Data mining and curation, Data Analysis, Validation, Resource & Writing; S.K.S.: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Supervision, Writing-review & editing, Investigation.

9. Acknowledgments

We are thankful to IIIT-A for the infrastructural facility. RKM, DK and OP are thankful to the Ministry of Education, Government of India (MoE-GoI) for providing MTech fellowship.

10. Disclosure statement

None declared.

11. Funding

There was no funding availed for this project.

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AVR/I/SSAPDB: A Comprehensive & Specialised Knowledgebase of Antimicrobial Peptides to Combat VRSA, VISA, and VSSA

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Abstract

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Introduction

Material & Method

Results & discussion

5.1. Insights from AVR/I/SSAPDB

5.2. Comparison with other databases

Conclusion & future perspective

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References

Additional Declarations

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