Desert locusts: pest or opportunity? A new solution to solve the food crisis, generate income, and reduce pollution

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901954/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Desert locusts: pest or opportunity? A new solution to solve the food crisis, generate income, and reduce pollution

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4901954/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Desert Locust "Schistocerca Gregaria", is a pest that destroys human and livestock food sources, leading to a crisis in food security. Chemical spraying methods, in addition to their high costs, contribute to food chain contamination and the resilience of these insects to pesticides. The first comprehensive field study in 2020, conducted in a southern region of Iran under the influence of Desert Locust attacks, employed traps to capture these insects. The study utilized random sampling for data collection and employed non-parametric tests for data analysis. Additionally, the experiences of hunters were assessed using a case study approach and compared to other similar studies. The results revealed that the number of Locusts on the experimental land was approximately − 27% compared to the control land, while the number of trapped Locusts was 3170% higher on the experimental land. Moreover, the number of Locusts in the traps was 4334% higher than on the experimental land. Regarding weight, the weight of Locusts on the control land was approximately 22% greater than on the experimental land. Furthermore, the weight of Locusts captured in traps was 4705% higher than on the experimental land and 3644% higher than on the control land. By the end of the research (on the fifth day), the harvested product weight from the control land was 2635 kilograms, whereas the experimental land yielded 6045 kilograms (2.3 times more). The findings of this study demonstrate that locust hunting, beyond preserving agricultural yields and reducing environmental pollution, leads to increased income for farmers and savings in water and energy consumption. Given these benefits, it is recommended that this method be tested in other regions facing locust invasions.

Desert Locust

Locust hunting

Trap

Environmental Conservation

Food security

Iran

Insects are the most abundant category of living creatures that have a crucial impact on ecosystems¹. The Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is a notable insect among them. They are herbivores, and their diverse diet² makes them one of the most hazardous pests in the event of a population outbreak. Therefore, they pose a challenge to food security^3,4. They are highly solitary and often thrive in warm and sunny ecosystems^5,6. Consecutive droughts, accompanied by moderate and humid winters, create the conditions for the proliferation of this insect, and changes in soil temperature cause variations in the hatching time of this insect's larvae from eggs^7–10. However, population outbreaks occur in some species of Locusts with short antennae from the Acrididae family.

After hatching, locusts are in the form of larvae and cannot fly, mate, or lay eggs, but they can hop. After reaching maturity, they gain the ability to fly, mate, and lay eggs. Vinylanisole, Phenol, Guaiacol, and Veratrole are gases produced by the locusts' digestive system, serving as cohesive pheromones that transform them into social beings, forming large groups^11–13. Increased tactile stimulation of their hind legs results in an elevation of serotonin levels¹⁴. Under the influence of heightened serotonin levels, their color changes, they engage in more feeding, their reproductive processes accelerate, and they exhibit more collective behavior. After several generations, their population surges, transforming them into the most significant and destructive plant pests¹⁵.

Locust attacks have occurred frequently throughout history and have caused significant damage^16–18. Reports of grassland areas being infested by locusts date back to 1974⁴. A typical swarm of locusts can cover and infest an area of 150 square kilometers and travel up to 150 kilometers per day. The massive locust outbreak in the Rocky Mountains in 1875 has been documented, with the dimensions of the swarm measuring 180x2900 kilometers and an estimated population of around 3.5 trillion locusts¹⁹. Even the migratory journey of desert locusts from Africa to the Caribbean Sea between 1987 and 1989 has been documented^20–23.

Planting vegetation in distant rangelands, removing plant cover from lands, concentrating damages in specific regions of pastures, deliberately and systematically igniting fires, establishing green belts, and employing D4-2 and Carbaryl pesticides have been common approaches for combating locusts^15,24–31. At various stages of their life cycle, locusts are influenced by parasites, fungi, bacteria, and natural predators^15,32–39. Even alterations in their dietary habits⁴⁰ or feeding on certain plants like Nerium oleander can contribute to population control^41–43.

Mechanical mechanisms lack sufficient power to effectively combat their extensive onslaught. In chemical confrontation, weaknesses such as lack of durability, development of resistance, high economic costs, and adverse environmental impacts are evident⁵. Furthermore, the persistence of toxic effects has been reported to range from 10 days to several months^44,45 and a study conducted in the United States demonstrated the expenditure of 25 million dollars for controlling 3 million hectares of pastures through the use of 5 million liters of malathion⁴⁶. The proactive biological control of the Locust population constitutes a scientific strategy. However, the allocation of budgetary resources by governments is contingent upon their political inclinations rather than the scientific discoveries of researchers. Preventing the emergence of crises through the application of integrated pest management (IPM) approach is a strategy grounded in a comprehensive understanding of the behavior and ecology of locusts⁴⁷.

This research aimed to explore the feasibility of hunting Locusts to determine the potential changes in agricultural field yields resulting from their capture, as an alternative to chemical spraying. Additionally, a discussion will take place regarding the comparison of damages caused by Locust invasions with the damages resulting from the use of pesticides.

Considering the predictions of the Ministry of Agriculture and the Environmental Protection Agency regarding the Locust invasions, necessary planning was conducted to study their behavior about the proposed hypothesis of capturing them.

Materials

Two similar parcels of land (each approximately 5000 m² − 111x45 and 120x42) were selected at a distance of 1723 meters from each other in the agricultural fields of Nahand village (27.201035, 54.197782) located in the Kohij county of Hormozgan province. These parcels were monitored in the field from April 24th to April 29th, 2020. Both parcels were in their second year of fall alfalfa cultivation. Planting 13.5 kg of Nikshahri seeds per 5000 m², with rows spaced 20 to 25 cm apart, had been carried out. The planting and harvesting of both parcels were done using mechanized methods, and they were irrigated through traditional fixed rain irrigation systems.

Twenty metal barrels, each with a capacity of 220 liters, along with woven sacks made of 40 kg nylon fibers, as well as twenty 200-watt filament lamps with 450 meters of electrical wire, were utilized. Iron materials were employed as supportive bases for holding the lamps. A Tosan model 3260A mini milling machine was used for cutting and reshaping certain sections of the metal barrels, while a BOSS Lifestyle model 400-amp welding machine was utilized for welding and connecting the cut pieces from the barrels to create the intended compartments. The weight of the captured locusts was measured using a digital retail scale, the MDS9800 model, with a capacity of 15 kg and an accuracy/error margin of 1 gram. This scale features a compact ABS plastic body with an iron base, measuring 35 x 35 x 11 centimeters, and a stainless-steel edged tray measuring 5 x 23 x 37 centimeters, equipped with both electrical and battery power sources, as well as an LCD.

The software applications Microsoft Word and Excel from the Microsoft Office 2019 suite, as well as SPSS 26 and EndNote 20, were utilized.

Methods

The two parcels of land were observed for 5 days. In one of the parcels, 20 barrels containing a lone 200-watt light bulb were set up in three lines (7–6–7) with a rough distance of 15 meters (with a radius varying from 7 to 8 meters) between each one. The barrels were situated at a height of 1.5 meters above the surface. The metal barrels' lids were cut open, and after transforming to a conical shape, each was resealed using a hole with a 3-centimeter radius at the center. The lamps were mounted above the holes of each barrel at a distance of 50 to 60 centimeters. The lamps remained illuminated for 8 hours each night, from sunset to sunrise, throughout 5 nights. During the hours of lamp illumination, the barrel chambers were emptied four times. No equipment was employed on the second plot; it was solely considered as an observational control in this study.

To compare the difference in Locust counts between the two plots, the Mann-Whitney test was employed. The findings indicated a significant increase in the number of Locusts in the control plot compared to the experimental plot (U = 1147, Z = -9.416, p < 0.001). The mean Locust count in the control plot was 139.03, whereas, in the experimental plot, it was 61.97. Refer to Table 1 for details.

Table 1

Results of the Mann-Whitney U test for comparing locust quantities between the two fields.

(Source: Current Study)
Test Statistics^a
	Number
Mann-Whitney U	1147.000
Wilcoxon W	6197.000
Z	-9.416
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	.000
a. Grouping Variable: Scop

The effectiveness of the difference in the number of Locusts between the two agricultural fields was assessed using the rank correlation coefficient, calculated to be -0.666. This indicates that 44.4% of the variance in the number of Locusts is explained by the type of soil, demonstrating a significant effect where Z represents the value of the Mann-Whitney test statistic and N is the total number of samples.

$$\:r=\frac{Z}{\sqrt{N}}=\frac{-9.416}{\sqrt{200}}=-0.666$$

Furthermore, to assess the effectiveness of traps in attracting Locusts, the Wilcoxon test for paired data was conducted. The results indicated that the number of Locusts in the traps was significantly higher than in the experimental field (Z = -15.013, p < 0.001). See Table 2.

Table 2

Wilcoxon signed-rank test findings comparing locust counts between traps and fields.

(Source: Current study)
Test Statistics^a
	NewScop2 - Number	NewScop3 - Number
Z	-15.013^b	-15.013^b
Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)	.000	.000
a. Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test. b. Based on positive ranks.

The effectiveness of the difference in locust counts between traps and the experimental field was also assessed using the rank correlation coefficient, calculated to be -0.866. This indicates that 75% of the variance in locust counts is explained by the traps, demonstrating a highly significant effect. Here, Z represents the value of the Wilcoxon test statistic, and N is the total number of samples.

$$\:r=\frac{Z}{\sqrt{N}}=\frac{-15.013}{\sqrt{300}}=-0.866$$

Based on the observations and obtained results (Table 3), the number of counted locusts per square meter over five consecutive nights averaged 116 on the control field, 85 on the experimental field, and 3648 in the traps. The results indicate that the average number of locusts on the experimental field was 26.8% lower than the control field, and the difference in the average number of trapped locusts compared to the control field was 3170.7%. Furthermore, the ratio of locusts inside the traps was 4334.6% higher than the number of locusts in the experimental field.

Table 3

Number of counted locusts per square meter of the field.

(Source: Current study)
	First Night	Second Night	Third Night	Fourth Night	Fifth Night	Ave.
Control field	92	108	141	136	104	116
Experimental field	67	92	78	85	103	85
Trap	3652	3829	3531	3762	3648	3684

The average weight of Locusts present in 1 square meter of the control field was 283 grams, 220 grams on the experimental field, and 10328 grams in the traps. Comparing the weight of Locusts in 1 square meter of the control field to the experimental field indicates that 22.5% fewer Locusts accumulated in the experimental field. Furthermore, the average weight of Locusts within the traps was 3644.5% higher compared to the control field and 4705.1% higher compared to the experimental field. See Table 4.

Table 4

Weight of Locusts per square meter of the field (g)

(Source: Current study)
	First Night	Second Night	Third Night	Fourth Night	Fifth Night	Ave.
Control field	225	263	344	332	254	283
Experimental field	172	238	202	220	267	220
Trap	10270	10300	10192	10558	10332	10328
*- The unit of measurement for weight was grams (gr).

It is worth mentioning that the total amount of crops gathered from the standard plot after the fifth day of the research reached 2635 kilos, while the amount harvested from the unique plot was indicated as 6045 kilos.

One could argue that the reduction in the number of locusts on the ground in the experiment was a result of the presence of traps, and the significant difference between the number of trapped locusts and the locusts on the experimental ground was due to the attraction of locusts from neighboring areas to the traps on the experimental ground. Considering the spatial distance and physical barriers between the two areas (such as walls, etc.), it becomes evident that the number of locusts on the ground in the natural conditions was the control, and the light pollution caused by the traps present on the experimental ground did not have a direct impact on attracting locusts from the control area to the experimental area.

The rank correlation coefficient (r = -0.666) indicates that 44.4% of the variance in the number of locusts is attributed to the presence of traps. The significant and notable increase in the number of trapped locusts suggests that the experimental area has attracted a substantial number of specimens. The rank correlation coefficient (r = -0.866) further demonstrates that 75% of the variance in the number of locusts has been influenced by the traps.

The total yield obtained from the experimental field, despite the Locusts' attack, was 2.3 times higher than the control field (229.4%). This indicates that the use of traps has effectively mitigated significant losses in yield. Both fields experienced an onslaught of the same insect species, yet due to the lesser proximity and contact between the products of the experimental field and the Locusts, lesser damage has been inflicted upon the yield of the experimental field.

The research findings indicate that the traps have managed to reduce the movement of Locusts and prevent damage caused by them. The utilization of these traps not only reduces harm to the crops but also has a positive impact on generating income for farmers and insurance claims.

Under normal circumstances, there shouldn't be a significant difference between the two agricultural fields (during the Locusts' attack). However, considering the differences in the number and weight of Locusts between the two fields, while all conditions were equal (crop type, planting method, irrigation method, field dimensions, weather conditions, geographical location, pest type, pesticide type, timing of pesticide application, simultaneous monitoring of both fields, etc.), it can be deduced that the sole determining factor for the difference between these two fields was the presence of traps on the experimental field. The presence of strip lights in the experimental field attracted Locusts and ultimately aided in reducing damages and pest control.

Given the increasing human demand for food, ensuring food supply has become a challenge, and maintaining food security is a necessity that, in its absence, can jeopardize national security⁴⁸. Therefore, any threat to food resources must be taken seriously. On the other hand, combating threats should not lead to secondary problems. While pest control is essential, it's important to recognize that the use of pesticides can have unintended biological effects⁴⁹. While pesticide spraying may eliminate large locust populations, it can lead to the development of biological resistance in smaller populations, allowing them to rebound and pose new threats^50–53. Due to the developed biological resistance, pesticides might not have a sufficient impact.

Observations of the feeding habits of Geladas, wolves, and ravens on locusts in the Gwasa Plateau located in Ethiopia in 2009 revealed the extent to which these insects can integrate into an ecosystem's food chain⁵⁴.

Many countries are grappling with the impact of the Locusts' invasion. Most of the outbreaks and damages are witnessed in Africa and Asia, while the territories of European countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea are also among the destinations for Locusts. The scarcity of food resources and environmental preservation can be considered reasons behind the pursuit of Locusts.

One behavioral characteristic of Locusts is their attraction to light, which leads to their entrapment⁵⁵. Research conducted in the Mauritanian desert has shown that they are drawn to light during the night and gather on elevated vegetation⁵⁶. Researchers from the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering have observed that Locusts are attracted to visible light rays, displaying a positive phototactic response⁵⁷. On the other hand, a positive response of their visual system to 610 nm orange light has been reported^58,59. Moreover, reports indicate an increase in phototaxis at a temperature of 65°C⁶⁰.

Consuming bugs, or entomophagy, is highly suggested by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations as a strategy to combat poverty and starvation^61–64. Numerous countries have adopted the habit of eating insects for sustenance, with a plethora of choices on offer such as worms, ants, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, tree bugs, water beetles, honeybees, wild bees, silkworms, aquatic insect larvae, and a multitude of other insect species being relished as meals or snacks. Due to their high nutritional value⁶⁵, Locusts are used as appetizers or even complete meals in restaurants in certain countries⁶⁶. China, India, Pakistan, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos, Australia, Mexico, Arab countries, African countries, South American countries, and others have embraced insect farming, including Locusts. Some of them consume these edible insects due to food scarcity among consumers⁶⁷.

Creating livestock, chicken, and fish farming hubs is a method to guarantee food availability, however, the reproduction rate of mammals, birds, and marine creatures can't rival that of Locusts⁶⁸. Thus, besides human consumption, Locusts can be utilized to nourish a variety of animals like livestock, poultry, and fish^48,68–74. Considering that the majority of feed for farmed birds is composed of corn and soybeans (Table 5), Locusts can be considered the best alternative due to their high protein content^75,76. Research on the possibility of raising poultry in areas affected by Locusts' invasion in the grasslands of Huángchēng, China, indicates that birds feed well on them, leading to an increase in both the quantity and quality of their meat⁷⁷.

Table 5

Resources needed to produce 1 kg of protein^78,79
	Amount of feed needed to produce 1 kg of protein (kg)	Amount of water needed to produce 1 kg of protein (Li)
Cow	20	1500
Pig	6.7	600
Chicken	3.3	360
Locust	1.7	1

Research indicates that Locusts have a high nutritional value (Table 6). Protein constitutes 46–56% of the dry weight of Locusts. The fat content is estimated to be 31–35%, which is lower than the protein content. Chitin makes up 6–13%, and the share of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids is reported as 44% and 54%, respectively. Locust has a cholesterol level of approximately 286 mg/100g, surpassing that of beef or chicken by a significant margin^80,81. Additionally, Locust meat is rich in iodine, phosphorus, iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, calcium, magnesium, selenium, and vitamin B^82,83. The carbohydrate content in Locusts is minimal, making it a favored choice in certain dietary plans in Southeast Asian nations. Edible insects, in terms of energy content, are a more suitable source compared to soybeans, corn, lentils, meat, and legumes. The quality of Locust’s meat improves with a diet rich in nitrogenous plant leaves^40,84,85.

Table 6

Nutritional value of locust meat (100gr)^78,86,87
	Locust	Beef	Lamb	Salmon
Water	-	57.98 (g)	58.6 (g)	< 65 (g)
Protein	3.14 (g)	25.93 (g)	18 (g)	18.7 (g)
Fat	3.3 (g)	15.41 (g)	18 (g)	0.8 (g)
Carbohydrate	2.2 (g)	-	-	-
Calcium	5.27 (ml/g)	18 (ml/g)	9 (ml/g)	-
Iron	0.3 (ml/g)	2.6 (ml/g)	2.3 (ml/g)	< 0.2 (ml/g)

It should be recognized as a necessity that diversifying food sources contributes to food security⁸⁸. The challenges associated with food production in farms, poultry houses, and livestock farms are driving the world towards increased utilization of insects in the not-so-distant future⁶⁸. Harvesting Locusts is feasible and can be done at a low cost^49,89,90. Through taking this action, we can not only reduce the spread of Locusts but also create job prospects. Refraining from using chemicals results in cost savings and stops the influx of harmful substances into ecosystems and food webs.

In conclusion, based on the findings of this study and other referenced research above, it can be stated that:

Large-scale harvesting of Locusts is feasible.

Harvesting Locusts as a natural and environmentally-friendly control method can aid in maintaining ecosystem balance without causing environmental pollution and unintended side effects associated with pesticide use.

Locust hunting can contribute to reducing agricultural damage and preserving product quality, potentially reducing the need for chemical pesticides.

Harvesting Locusts is more cost-effective compared to spraying them with chemicals.

Earnings obtained from vending Locusts may assist in offsetting monetary setbacks caused by pest-ridden farm goods.

Raising Grasshoppers is a more cost-effective and more eco-friendly alternative to raising different kinds of animals, birds, and aquatic creatures.

Feeding various types of livestock, poultry, and fish with Locusts can enhance the quality of meat and derived products.

Entomophagy as a necessity for food security should be given more attention than ever before.

Locusts, as rich sources of protein and nutrients, can partially address nutritional deficiencies in communities facing food scarcity.

The use of Locusts in nutrition can help reduce reliance on traditional food sources.

Incorporating Locusts in the diet of other animals can contribute to water-saving in food production.

In light of these points, considering the potential benefits of Locust utilization, it is evident that exploring and implementing strategies for their sustainable harvesting and integration into various food systems can have multifaceted positive impacts on food security, environmental preservation, and economic development.

Acknowledgments: I extend my heartfelt gratitude to the farmers who participated in this study.

Author Contributions: F.R. concept development, data collection, writing, and editing. The author has read and agreed to the publication of this article.

Data availability statement: Visit https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8251060 for access to the dataset file, please.

Additional Information (Conflict of Interest): The author declares no conflicts of interest.

Supplementary Information (Financial Disclosure): The cost breakdown for this research included the price of 20 metal barrels ($150), a mini grinder tool for iron cutting ($75), a welding machine for iron ($69), a scale ($146), as well as expenses for lamps, electrical wiring, and other equipment ($55). The total cost of this study was $495, which was fully covered by the researcher and did not receive any external financial support.

Samways MJ et al (2020) Solutions for humanity on how to conserve insects. Biol Conserv 242:108427
Joern A (1979) Feeding patterns in grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae): factors influencing diet specialization. Oecologia 38:325–347
Peng W et al (2020) A review of historical and recent locust outbreaks: Links to global warming, food security and mitigation strategies. Environ Res 191:110046
Le Gall M, Overson R, Cease A (2019) A global review on locusts (Orthoptera: Acrididae) and their interactions with livestock grazing practices. Front Ecol Evol 7:263
Moharana S, Khuntia P, Das SS, Das R, Panigrahi S (2020) A systematic review of behavioral aspects & management techniques to control locusts. Int J Sci Adv Res Technol 6:361–369
Symmons P, Cressman K (2001) Desert locust guidelines: biology and behaviour. FAO, Rome
Klein I et al (2022) Predicting suitable breeding areas for different locust species–A multi-scale approach accounting for environmental conditions and current land cover situation. Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf 107:102672
Ellenburg WL et al (2021) Detecting desert locust breeding grounds: A Satellite-Assisted modeling approach. Remote Sens 13:1276
Kimathi E et al (2020) Prediction of breeding regions for the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria in East Africa. Sci Rep 10:1–10
Cheke RA et al (2020) Evidence for a causal relationship between the solar cycle and locust abundance. Agronomy 11:69
Guo X et al (2020) 4-Vinylanisole is an aggregation pheromone in locusts. Nature 584:584–588
Nakano M, Morgan-Richards M, Trewick SA (2022) Clavijo-McCormick, A. Chemical Ecology and Olfaction in Short-Horned Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae). J Chem Ecol 48:121–140
Tyśkiewicz K et al (2019) Characterization of bioactive compounds in the biomass of black locust, poplar and willow. Trees 33:1235–1263
Pflüger H-J, Bräunig P (2021) One hundred years of phase polymorphism research in locusts. J Comp Physiol A 207:321–326
Zhang L, Lecoq M, Latchininsky A, Hunter D (2019) Locust and grasshopper management. Annu Rev Entomol 64:15–34
Çiplak B (2021) Locust and grasshopper outbreaks in the near east: Review under global warming context. Agronomy 11:111
Bouteiller X et al (2021) The seeds of invasion: enhanced germination in invasive European populations of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) compared to native American populations. Plant Biol 23:1006–1017
Meynard CN, Lecoq M, Chapuis MP, Piou C (2020) On the relative role of climate change and management in the current desert locust outbreak in East Africa. Glob Change Biol 26:3753–3755
Lockwood JA, Debrey L (1990) D. A solution for the sudden and unexplained extinction of the Rocky Mountain grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Environ Entomol 19:1194–1205
Rosenberg J, Burt PJ (1999) Windborne displacements of desert locusts from Africa to the Caribbean and South America. Aerobiologia 15:167–175
Lecoq M (Arab Society for Plant Protection)
Skaf R, Popov G, Roffey J (1990) The Desert Locust: an international challenge. Philosophical Trans Royal Soc Lond B Biol Sci 328:525–538
Lecoq M (2001) Recent progress in Desert and Migratory Locust management in Africa. Are preventative actions possible? J Orthoptera Res 10:277–291
Klein I, Oppelt N, Kuenzer C (2021) Application of remote sensing data for locust research and management—a review. Insects 12:233
Word ML et al (2019) Soil-targeted interventions could alleviate locust and grasshopper pest pressure in West Africa. Sci Total Environ 663:632–643
Mayfield-Mack LD (2012) Combating the green imps of Satan: Efforts of Nebraskans against the Rocky Mountain locust infestations of the 1870s. University of Nebraska at Kearney
Ahmad MN, Shao Z, Altan O (2022) Effect of locust invasion and mitigation using remote sensing techniques: a case study of North Sindh Pakistan. Photogrammetric Eng Remote Sens 88:47–53
Ojewumi ME, Omoleye AJ, Ajayi AA, Oyekunle DT, Ayoola AA in Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 032068 (IOP Publishing)
Wu H, Rozlomiy NG in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 042083 (IOP Publishing)
Dakhel WH, Jaronski ST, Schell S (2020) Control of pest grasshoppers in North America. Insects 11:566
Showier AT (2019) The North African environment at risk. Routledge, pp 217–240
Raji IA, Chaskda AA, Manu SA, Downs CT (2021) Bird species use of Tapinanthus dodoneifolius mistletoes parasitising African locust bean trees Parkia biglobosa in Amurum Forest Reserve, Nigeria. J Ornithol 162:1129–1140. https://doi.org:10.1007/s10336-021-01890-0
Chen L et al (2020) Complete genome of a unicellular parasite (Antonospora locustae) and transcriptional interactions with its host locust. Microb Genom 6. https://doi.org:10.1099/mgen.0.000421
Zhang L, Lecoq M (2021) Nosema locustae (Protozoa, Microsporidia), a biological agent for Locust and Grasshopper control. Agronomy 11:711
Kamga SF et al (2022) The effect of climate variability in the efficacy of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium acridum against the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria. Sci Rep 12:1–15
Jiang Z-Y, Ligoxygakis P, Xia Y-X (2020) HYD3, a conidial hydrophobin of the fungal entomopathogen Metarhizium acridum induces the immunity of its specialist host locust. Int J Biol Macromol 165:1303–1311
Lavy O, Gophna U, Gefen E, Ayali A (2020) Locust bacterial symbionts: An update. Insects 11:655
Lavy O, Gophna U, Gefen E, Ayali A (2019) The effect of density-dependent phase on the locust gut bacterial composition. Front Microbiol 9:3020
Nelson K, Muge E, Wamalwa B (2021) Cellulolytic Bacillus species isolated from the gut of the desert locust Schistocerca gregaria. Sci Afr 11:e00665
Joern A, Behmer ST (1998) Impact of diet quality on demographic attributes in adult grasshoppers and the nitrogen limitation hypothesis. Ecol Entomol 23:174–184
Üner O, Geçgel Ü, Avcu T (2021) Comparisons of activated carbons produced from sycamore balls, ripe black locust seed pods, and Nerium oleander fruits and also their H2 storage studies. Carbon Lett 31:75–92
Alessio Papini MB, Foggi A (2018) A probable anthropic origin of Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae) in the Mediterranean basin. Plant Biosystems 152:1159–1167. https://doi.org:10.1080/11263504.2017.1410634
EFSA Panel on Plant Health (PLH), Dehnen-Schmutz CBK, Serio FD, Gonthier P, Jacques M-A, Josep Anton Jaques Miret, Annemarie Fejer Justesen, Alan MacLeod, Christer Sven Magnusson, Panagiotis Milonas, Juan A Navas-Cortes, Stephen Parnell, Roel Potting, Philippe L, Reignault H-H, Thulke (2021) Wopke Van der Werf, Antonio Vicent Civera, Jonathan Yuen and Lucia Zappala. Commodity risk assessment of Nerium oleander plants from Turkey. EFSA Journal. 19 https://doi.org:10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6569
Ramanujam B, Rangeshwaran R, Sivakmar G, Mohan M, Yandigeri M (2014) Management of insect pests by microorganisms. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy 80, 455–471
Maina U, Galadima I, Gambo F, Zakaria D (2018) A review on the use of entomopathogenic fungi in the management of insect pests of field crops. J Entomol Zool Stud 6:27–32
Lockwood JA, Anderson-Sprecher R, Schell SP (2002) When less is more: optimization of reduced agent-area treatments (RAATs) for management of rangeland grasshoppers. Crop Prot 21:551–562
Tashian RE, Hewett-Emmett D, Carter N, Bergenhem NC (2000) Carbonic anhydrase (CA)-related proteins (CA-RPs), and transmembrane proteins with CA or CA-RP domains. carbonic anhydrases, 105–120
Van Huis A (2020) Insects as food and feed, a new emerging agricultural sector: a review. J Insects as Food Feed 6:27–44
Oonincx AvH, و. (2019) D. G. A. B. Locusts as food: An environmental, social and economic evaluation. Nat Sustain 2:291–297. https://doi.org:10.1038/s41893-019-0246-8
Yudaev I et al in International Conference on Intelligent Computing & Optimization. 781–788 (Springer)
Alekseev A et al (2019) Characterization and biological action of avermectin granules on the Moroccan Locust, Dociostaurus maroccanus (Orthoptera: Acrididae). J Econ Entomol 112:2663–2669
Githae EW, Kuria EK (2021) Biological control of desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forskål). CAB Rev Perspect Agric Vet Sci Nutr Nat Resour 16:13
Zhu B, Sun X, Nie X, Liang P, Gao X (2020) MicroRNA-998–3p contributes to Cry1Ac-resistance by targeting ABCC2 in lepidopteran insects. Insect Biochem Mol Biol 117:103283
Fashing PJ, Nguyen N, Fashing NJ (2010) Behavior of geladas and other endemic wildlife during a desert locust outbreak at Guassa, Ethiopia: ecological and conservation implications. Primates 51:193–197
Farrow R (1974) A modified light-trap for obtaining large samples of night‐flying locusts and grasshoppers. Australian J Entomol 13:357–360
Maeno KO, Ely O, Ould Mohamed S, Jaavar SA (2020) M. E. H. & Ould Babah Ebbe, M. A. Adult Desert Locust Swarms, Schistocerca gregaria, Preferentially Roost in the Tallest Plants at Any Given Site in the Sahara Desert. Agronomy 10, 1923
Qihang L, Zhe X, Qiang Z (2017) Visual reaction effects induced and stimulated by different lights on phototactic bio-behaviors in Locusta migratoria manilensis. Int J Agricultural Biol Eng 10:173–181
Liu Q, Hou X, Zhou Q (2017) Influence of locusts visual reaction effect stimulated by orange light on response effect. J Biobased Mater Bioenergy 11:264–270
Liu Q et al (2019) Regulation of visual sensitivity responses in locusts stimulated by different spectral lights. Pakistan J Zool 51:2245–2255
Liu Q, Zhou Q (2011) Influence of light and heating temperature coupling effect onphototactic gain of locusts. Trans Chin Soc Agricultural Eng 27:110–116
Hov Ø et al Desert locust populations, rainfall and climate change: insights from phenomenological models using gridded monthly data
Hanboonsong Y, Jamjanya T, Durst PB (2013) Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collection and marketing in Thailand. RAP publication 3:8–21
Van Huis A et al (2013) Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations
Huis Av et al (2013) Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. FAO Forestry paper
Toti E et al (2020) Entomophagy: A Narrative Review on Nutritional Value, Safety, Cultural Acceptance and A Focus on the Role of Food Neophobia in Italy. Eur J Invest Health Psychol Educ 10:628–643
Srivastava S, Babu N, Pandey H (2009) Traditional insect bioprospecting–As human food and medicine
Tratalos JA, Cheke RA, Healey RG, Stenseth NC (2010) Desert locust populations, rainfall and climate change: insights from phenomenological models using gridded monthly data. Climate Res 43:229–239
Makkar HP (2016) Smart livestock feeding strategies for harvesting triple gain–the desired outcomes in planet, people and profit dimensions: a developing country perspective. Anim Prod Sci 56:519–534
DeFoliart GR (1989) The human use of insects as food and as animal feed. Am Entomol 35:22–36
Govorushko S (2019) Global status of insects as food and feed source: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 91:436–445
Dobermann D, Swift J, Field L (2017) Opportunities and hurdles of edible insects for food and feed. Nutr Bull 42:293–308
van Huis A (2021) Prospects of insects as food and feed. Org Agric 11:301–308
Van Huis A, Oonincx DG (2017) The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agron Sustain Dev 37:1–14
Van Huis A (2013) Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Ann Rev Entomol 58:563–583
Khan SH (2018) Recent advances in role of insects as alternative protein source in poultry nutrition. J Appl Anim Res 46:1144–1157. https://doi.org:10.1080/09712119.2018.1474743
Khusro M, Andrew NR, Nicholas A (2012) Insects as poultry feed: a scoping study for poultry production systems in Australia. World's Poult Sci J 68:435–446
Sun T, Long R, Liu Z, Ding W, Zhang Y (2012) Aspects of lipid oxidation of meat from free-range broilers consuming a diet containing grasshoppers on alpine steppe of the Tibetan Plateau. Poult Sci 91:224–231
Mariod AA, Ahmed YM, Abdelwahab SI (2020) Nutrient Composition of Desert Locust (Schistocerca gregaria). 323–331. https://doi.org:10.1007/978-3-030-32952-5_18
Daly RM, O’Connell SL, Mundell NL, Grimes CA, Dunstan DW, Nowson CA, Layman DK (2014) Protein-enriched diet, with the use of lean red meat, combined with progressive resistance training enhances lean tissue mass and muscle strength and reduces circulating IL-6 concentrations in elderly women: a cluster randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 99:899–910. https://doi.org:10.3945/ajcn.113.064154
Adámková A et al (2017) Nutritional Potential of Selected Insect Species Reared on the Island of Sumatra. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14:521
Makkar HP, Tran G, Heuzé V, Ankers P (2014) State-of-the-art on use of insects as animal feed. Anim Feed Sci Technol 197:1–33
Altowairqi AA, Baghdadi AM, Elsharawy NT (2022) Hydrocolloids is a new trend as meat preservative. World J Biology Pharm Health Sci 9:020–029
Salama SM (2020) African Edible Insects As Alternative Source of Food, Oil, Protein and Bioactive Components. Springer, pp 231–239
Ghosh S, Haldar P, Mandal DK (2014) Suitable food plants for mass rearing of the short-horn grasshopper Oxya hyla hyla (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Eur J Entomol 111
Van Huis A, Woldewahid G, Toleubayev K, Van Der Werf W (2008) Relationships between food quality and fitness in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, and its distribution over habitats on the Red Sea coastal plain of Sudan. Entomol Exp Appl 127:144–156
Colombo SM, Mazal X (2020) Investigation of the nutritional composition of different types of salmon available to Canadian consumers. J Agric Food Res 2:100056. https://doi.org:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100056
Kehoe, L.et al.Fresh Beef and Lamb Consumption in Relation to Nutrient Intakes and Markers of Nutrition and Health Status among the Population Aged 5–90 Years in Ireland. Nutrients 15, 313 (2023)
Lee S, Kim J, Park L (2021) The Impact of Edible Insect Hunting on Pest Control and Food Security in Developing Countries. Agric Hum Values 38:789–805
Baghersad V, Davari A, Sefidbari L (2021) Policy-making based on entrepreneurship ecosystem and development of knowledge-based companies. Karafan Q Sci J 17:67–81. https://doi.org:10.48301/kssa.2021.128453
Jones R, Williams W (2020) The Environmental and Nutritional Benefits of Edible Insect Consumption. FoodNutr Bull 41:201–216

The authors declare no competing interests.

Field sampling and experiments were performed on private land with permission from the land owner.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Desert locusts: pest or opportunity? A new solution to solve the food crisis, generate income, and reduce pollution

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Materials

Methods

Results

Conclusion

Discussion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1