Police Avoidance Among Black Youth

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Police Avoidance Among Black Youth

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5090466/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Objectives: Police violence is a public health crisis that disproportionately impacts youth of color, particularly Black youth. These disparities may also compel Black youth to engage in police avoidance (i.e., efforts to circumvent police contact and surveillance). Even so, research on Black youths’ engagement in police avoidance is lacking. The present study is the first to investigate factors that may underpin police avoidance among Black youth.

Methods: Data come from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE), a recent, cross-sectional, non-probability survey of Black youth (~52% male) aged 12-21 in Baltimore City (n = 345).

Results: Findings indicate that youth 1) identifying as bisexual or queer, 2) perceiving lower safety at home and in their neighborhoods, 3) reporting more negative attitudes about police, and 4) engaging in delinquent behaviors reported significantly greater police avoidance. Furthermore, youth who reported a greater number of known persons stopped by the police (e.g., family members, friends, neighbors) and had personally experienced police intrusion during direct or witnessed stops (e.g., harsh language, threats of force, use of force) also exhibited greater police avoidance.

Conclusions: LGBQ identity, reduced perceptions of environmental safety, negative attitudes about police, delinquent behaviors, and multiple types of police exposure may shape police avoidance among Black youth. Findings have the potential to inform targeted strategies to mitigate racial and LGBQ disparities in adolescent well-being.

Police Avoidance

Police Violence

Youth

Black

Urban

LGBQ

Using data from a recent (2022-2023) survey of Black youth aged 12-21 in Baltimore City, the current study is the first quantitative research to investigate factors linked to youth police avoidance – a risk factor for poor mental health.

Police violence – or acts of physical and/or psychological aggression structurally mediated by the system of law enforcement – is a public health crisis in the United States that disproportionately impacts youth of color, particularly Black youth.¹ By age 15, over 70% of Black youth have witnessed police stops, and 40% of Black boys have been stopped by police.^2,3 When stopped, Black youth are about three times as likely as White youth to experience police violence.² Moreover, one-third of Black youth in an urban sample reported daily exposure to stories of police violence online, and two-thirds had seen videos of police violence.⁴

Given their disproportionate exposure to police violence, Black youth may be compelled to engage in police avoidance—an understudied phenomenon. Police avoidance refers to efforts to circumvent contact with and surveillance by police.⁵ Police avoidance among young people may develop as a result of racialized hyper-surveillance, exposures to police aggression via the media and social or kin networks, and/or experiences with and attitudes about the criminal legal system.^6,7 While constructs related to police avoidance – such as mistrust of police and hypervigilance – regularly emerge as themes in qualitative research,^8,9 police avoidance was only recently studied quantitatively among a sample of Black men ages 18–44 in Washington D.C.⁵

A better understanding of police avoidance among youth – and the factors that underpin it – may illuminate drivers of racial disparities in adolescent health and well-being. While youths’ avoidance of potential harm is a normative response to threats that can promote their survival, prolonged or generalized avoidance can harm youth health and well-being.^10,11 Avoidance can reduce opportunities for positive experiences (e.g., time spent outdoors or with peers), increase focus on—and expectancy of—negative as compared to positive outcomes,¹² and involve attempted control or suppression of unwanted thoughts and feelings.¹³ With respect to police avoidance, the mental effort and energy required to avoid a pervasive aspect of federal, state, and local power structures may also create high levels of hypervigilance and stress that may damage youths’ well-being.^1,14

Despite the potential for police avoidance to harm adolescent well-being and exacerbate health disparities, research has yet to investigate the factors that shape police avoidance among Black youth. To address this gap in the literature, our current cross-sectional study of 345 Black youth in Baltimore City, MD examined police avoidance, particularly as it relates to (1) youth and family demographics, (2) adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), (3) environmental safety perceptions, (4) negative attitudes about police and delinquent behaviors, and (5) police exposures (e.g., direct stops, witnessed stops). Additional analyses aimed to uncover the specific features of in-person police stops (i.e., acts of officer intrusion) that might shape Black youths’ engagement in police avoidance.

We used data from the Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE),^4,15 a cross-sectional, non-probability survey administered to a sample of 345 Black youth (~ 52% male) in Baltimore City, Maryland from August 2022 to July 2023. To be eligible for participation, youth were required to 1) live in Baltimore City, 2) self-identify as Black (including Black biracial and multiracial), and 3) be 12–21 years old. The project was co-developed with the Center for Adolescent Health (CAH) Youth Advisory Board (YAB) to ensure the inclusion of youth perspectives. Recruitment involved collaboration with 12 youth-serving organizations in Baltimore, some of which serve especially vulnerable youth populations (e.g., LGBQ youth, youth disconnected from school and/or work). Organizations helped disseminate recruitment information and assisted youth in accessing study materials, on-site or online. Surveys were conducted via Qualtrics, with youth participants receiving a $30 e-gift card. Approval was obtained from the University’s [BLINDED FOR REVIEW] Institutional Review Board (#18323). Written informed consent was obtained from participants ages 18 and older; written caregiver permission and written youth assent were obtained from participants under age 18.

Dependent Variable

Police Avoidance. Following prior research,⁵ we assessed young people's efforts or behavioral strategies to avoid attention from–or harassment by–police. Youth asserted how often they watched how they dressed; spoke loudly with others; felt pressure to remain calm; walked or drove; planned where to walk, drive or go to; and made sure there were in the company of only a small number of other Black youth all to avoid harassment by or attention from the police. Responses ranged from never (1) to very often (4). Items were averaged into an index (range = 1–4; alpha = 0.89).

Independent Variables

For more details on the measurement of all independent variables, see the appendix.

Youth and Family Demographics. The following five youth demographic measures were included in the present study: 1) youth age (in years), 2) youth sex (male = 1; female = 0), 3) youth LGBQ identity (i.e., lesbian/gay, bisexual, and queer, with heterosexual/straight as the reference category), 4) youth multiracial (Black/African American in conjunction with other race/ethnicity = 1), and 5) youth disconnection from school and work (youth neither working nor in school = 1). Additionally, the following 4 family demographic measures were included in the study: 1) household size, 2) biological parent relationship status (married, cohabiting, with other as reference category), 3) biological parent US citizenship status, and 4) maternal education.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). The measurement of ACEs was adapted from the National Survey of Children’s Health¹⁶ and included 11 binary items on lifetime exposure to various stressors and adversities. Items were summed and participants were categorized into the following groups: None, One, Two or Three, and Four or More.

Environmental Safety Perceptions. We included three items asking youth how often they feel safe 1) at home, 2) at school, and 3) in their neighborhoods. Response options to all items included never (1), sometimes (2), most of the time (3), and always (4).

Negative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors. To capture relevant youths’ attitudes and behaviors, we assessed 1) negative attitudes about police using an expanded, 14-item version adapted from prior research,¹⁷ and 2) delinquent behaviors using a 13-item index adapted from the Future of Families and Child Well-being Study.¹⁸

Police Exposures. Finally, we followed the lead of prior research¹⁵ and included five police exposures in the present study: 1) police violence news consumption (days per week), 2) known persons stopped by police, 3) in-person witnessed police stop, 4) in-person direct police stop, and 5) intrusive police stop.

Analytic Approach

We calculated descriptive statistics for the full sample (n = 345), then estimated five stepwise, multivariable ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models separately assessing associations between each grouping/domain of independent variables (i.e., youth and family demographics, ACEs, environmental safety perceptions, negative attitudes about police and delinquent behaviors, and police exposures) and police avoidance. After estimating these five models, we estimated the fully specified model with all independent variables under all domains included. Finally, we estimated associations between individual acts of officer intrusion (e.g., harsh language, racial slurs, threats of force, use of force) and police avoidance among the subsample of youth with in-person police stops (n = 184). Missing data were imputed in STATA 18.1 using mi commands, which offers several key advantages over listwise deletion.¹⁹ We employed multiple imputation with chained equations, imputing variables with less than 10% missing data, resulting in 20 multiply imputed data sets.²⁰

Descriptive statistics for the full analytic sample (n = 345) are provided in Table 1. The sample was on average 17.85 years of age, 52.87% male, ~ 40% LGBQ, 3.48% multiracial, and 33.62% disconnected (i.e., not working or in school). Nearly 4 out of 5 youth had been exposed to one or more ACEs in their lifetime, with 13.62% reporting 4 or more ACEs. Furthermore, 33.20% had been directly stopped by police, ~ 45% had witnessed police stops in their communities, and about one-third had experienced officer intrusion during in-person police stops. Youth also reported viewing news covering police violence 4.3 days per week (SD = 2.50), on average. Additionally, the average score on police avoidance was 2.01 (SD = 0.82; Range = 1–4).

Table 1

Descriptive Statistics
Variables	Mean or %	Standard Deviation	Range
Dependent Variable
Police Avoidance	2.01	0.82	1–4
Independent Variables
Youth and Family Demographics
Youth Age	17.85	1.60	12–21
Youth Sex (Male = 1)	52.87%	-	0–1
Youth LGBQ: Gay	21.16%	-	0–1
Youth LGBQ: Bisexual	13.77%	-	0–1
Youth LGBQ: Queer	6.28%	-	0–1
Youth Multiracial	3.48%	-	0–1
Youth Disconnected (Not Working or In School)	33.62%	-	0–1
Biological Parents Married	17.74%	-	0–1
Biological Parents Cohabiting	5.03%	-	0–1
Biological Parent Immigrant	7.83%	-	0–1
Maternal Education	3.94	1.88	1–8
Household Size	4.15	1.96	1–10
Adverse Childhood Experiences
None	22.03%	-	0–1
One	48.12%	-	0–1
Two or Three	16.23%	-	0–1
Four or More	13.62%	-	0–1
Environmental Safety Perceptions
Home Safety	3.37	0.89	1–4
School Safety	2.61	0.86	1–4
Neighborhood Safety	2.59	0.99	1–4
Negative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors
Negative Attitudes About Police	2.80	0.58	1–4
Delinquent Behaviors	1.39	0.64	1–4
Police Exposures
Police Violence News Consumption (Days per Week)	4.30	2.50	0–7
Known Persons Stopped by Police	1.27	1.91	0–9
In-Person Witnessed Police Stop	45.51%	-	0–1
In-Person Direct Police Stop	33.20%	-	0–1
Intrusive Police Stop	33.62%	-	0–1

Table 2 displays the results of stepwise, multivariable OLS models assessing the association between each of the five groupings/domains of independent variables and police avoidance. In the case of youth and family demographics, findings reveal that youth bisexual identity (B = 0.41; Beta = 0.17; SE = 0.14; p < 0.01), youth queer identity (B = 0.54; Beta = 0.16; SE = 0.18; p < 0.01), and household size (B = -0.05; Beta = 0.11; SE = 0.02; p < 0.05) were significantly associated with police avoidance. In the case of ACEs, there was no evidence of significant associations with police avoidance. Regarding environmental safety perceptions, findings reveal that both home safety (B = -0.23; Beta = -0.25; SE = 0.05; p < 0.01) and neighborhood safety (B = -0.25; Beta = -0.29; SE = 0.05; p < 0.01) were significantly and negatively associated with police avoidance. Additionally, findings reveal that both negative attitudes about police (B = 0.36; Beta = 0.26; SE = 0.07; p < 0.01) and delinquent behaviors (B = 0.30; Beta = 0.23; SE = 0.07; p < 0.01) were significantly and positively associated with police avoidance. Finally, in the case of police exposures, findings reveal that known persons stopped by police (B = 0.06; Beta = 0.15; SE = 0.03; p < 0.05) and intrusive police stops (B = 0.36; Beta = 0.21; SE = 0.13; p < 0.01) were significantly and positively associated with police avoidance. In the fully specified model, all the associations noted above retained their statistical significance, despite attenuation in some cases (e.g., environmental safety perceptions, negative attitudes about police, and delinquent behaviors).

Table 2

OLS Regression Models of Factors Predicting Police Avoidance Among Black Youth in Baltimore City (n = 345)
	Police Avoidance
	B/Beta SE	B/Beta SE	B/Beta SE	B/Beta SE	B/Beta SE	B/Beta SE
Youth and Family Demographics
Youth Age	0.04/0.07 0.03	-	-	-	-	0.02/0.03 0.03
Youth Sex (Male = 1)	0.10/0.06 0.10	-	-	-	-	0.14/0.09 0.09
Youth LGBQ: Gay	0.20/0.10 0.12	-	-	-	-	0.19/0.09 0.11
Youth LGBQ: Bisexual	0.41**/0.17 0.14	-	-	-	-	0.45**/0.19 0.12
Youth LGBQ: Queer	0.54**/0.16 0.18	-	-	-	-	0.38*/0.12 0.16
Youth Multiracial	-0.40/-0.09 0.24	-	-	-	-	-0.18/-0.04 0.21
Youth Disconnected (Not Working or in School)	-0.11/-0.06 0.10	-	-	-	-	-0.03/-0.02 0.09
Biological Parents Married	0.16/0.08 0.12	-	-	-	-	-0.02/-0.01 0.11
Biological Parents Cohabiting	-0.10/-0.03 0.20	-	-	-	-	-0.08/-0.02 0/18
Biological Parent Immigrant	0.12/0.04 0.17	-	-	-	-	0.07/0.02 0.15
Maternal Education	-0.03/-0.06 0.02	-	-	-	-	-0.01/-0.02 0.02
Household Size	-0.05*/-0.11 0.02	-	-	-	-	-0.07**/-0.17 0.02
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
One	-	-0.19/-0.11 0.11	-	-	-	-0.16/-0.10 0.11
Two or Three	-	0.10/0.04 0.14	-	-	-	-0.03/-0.01 0.14
Four or More	-	0.15/0.07 0.15	-	-	-	-0.27/-0.11 0.15
Environmental Safety Perceptions
Home Safety	-	-	-0.23**/-0.25 0.05	-	-	-0.18**/-0.20 0.05
School Safety	-	-	0.09/0.10 0.05	-	-	0.07/0.08 0.05
Neighborhood Safety	-	-	-0.25**/-0.29 0.05	-	-	-0.19**/-0.22 0.05
Negative Attitudes about Police and Delinquent Behaviors
Negative Attitudes About Police	-	-	-	0.36**/0.26 0.07	-	0.28**/0.20 0.07
Delinquent Behaviors	-	-	-	0.30**/0.23 0.07	-	0.18*/0.14 0.07
Police Exposures
Police Violence News Consumption	-	-	-	-	-0.01/-0.03 0.02	0.00/0.00 0.02
Known Persons Stopped by Police	-	-	-	-	0.06*/0.15 0.03	0.06*/0.14 0.03
In-Person Witnessed Police Stop	-	-	-	-	0.02/0.01 0.12	-0.05/-0.03 0.11
In-Person Direct Police Stop	-	-	-	-	0.04/0.02 0.11	-0.12/-0.07 0.10
Intrusive Police Stop	-	-	-	-	0.36**/0.21 0.13	0.34**/0.20 0.12
n	345	345	345	345	345	345
Notes: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01. LGBQ = Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Queer; ACEs = Adverse Childhood Experiences; N = Sample Size; B = Unstandardized Coefficient; Beta = Standardized Coefficient. In the final model, collinearity levels are acceptable (all variance inflation factors are < 2.5).

Finally, as shown in Table 3, we examined associations between specific forms of officer intrusion (e.g., harsh language, threats of force, use of force) and police avoidance among the subsample of youth reporting in-person police stops (n = 184). Findings affirm the relevance of officer intrusion for police avoidance, as all nine categories of officer intrusion were positively and significantly associated with police avoidance.

Table 3

OLS Regression Models of Associations between Forms of Officer Intrusion and Police Avoidance Among Youth with In-Person Police Stops (n = 184)
	Police Avoidance
	B/Beta	SE
Form of Officer Intrusion
Frisk/Pat Down	0.40**/0.25	0.14
Search Bags and Pockets	0.40**/0.25	0.13
Harsh Language	0.35**/0.21	0.13
Racial Slurs	0.33*/0.17	0.15
Threats of Force	0.42**/0.25	0.14
Use of Force	0.53**/0.32	0.13
Handcuffs	0.36**/0.22	0.12
Officer Gunpoint	0.35*/0.19	0.15
Other	0.72**/0.27	0.22
n	184
Notes: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01. Each form of officer intrusion is examined separately. The following are included in each model: youth age, youth sex, youth LGBQ identities (gay, bisexual, and queer, with heterosexual as the reference category), youth multiracial, youth disconnected, bio parent married, bio parent cohabitating, bio parent immigrant, maternal education, household size, ACEs, home safety, school safety, neighborhood safety, negative attitudes about police, delinquent behaviors, police violence news consumption (days per week), known persons stopped by police, and in-person direct police stop.

Our findings identify key risk factors for police avoidance, building upon the limited quantitative research on this topic and extending it to examine police avoidance among a diverse sample of Black youth in an urban setting.⁵ Given existing literature and theory suggest that, over time, police avoidance - and its role in system avoidance more broadly – has the potential to worsen the mental health and well-being of Black persons,^5,21,22 longitudinal studies examining not only risk factors for Black youths’ police avoidance, but also the health sequelae of their police avoidance, are needed. This line of work may help further explain how police avoidance harms Black youth emotionally and may identify ways of addressing deleterious aspects of youth police avoidance (e.g., isolation, reduced hope) while supporting adaptive aspects (e.g., protecting one’s own physical safety).

Despite its contribution, the present study has some notable limitations, including 1) the cross-sectional study design, 2) the use of a non-probability, community-based sample of Black youth, and 3) the lack of qualitative data on youths’ strategies to avoid police, which may have better illuminated the experiences of multiple marginalized youth (e.g., LGBQ youth). Even so, our findings support the use of policies and practices that curtail proactive policing and surveillance of Black youth, especially in under-resourced communities.²³ For instance, implementing comprehensive use of force policies and providing officers with developmentally appropriate, culturally sensitive, gender-responsive, and trauma-informed social skills training that prioritizes diversion and de-escalation may reduce police avoidance among Black youth.^24,25 While systemic changes to address racialized police violence are of paramount importance, efforts to raise awareness and educate youth service providers (e.g., school counselors, social workers, and pediatricians) on risk factors for police avoidance among Black youth (e.g., LGBQ identity, low environmental safety, adverse police exposures) may be an important step in addressing the collateral and inequitable harms of policing for young people. As additional data on youth police avoidance are gathered, findings can shape potential screenings for police avoidance and its risk factors and can inform the selection of equitable, trauma-informed approaches that account for and address these factors and potential harms to youth well-being.

Survey of Police-Adolescent Contact Experiences (SPACE); Center for Adolescent Health (CAH); Youth Advisory Board (YAB); Future of Families and Child Well-being Study (FFCWS); Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Queer (LGBQ).

Funding Source: Funding for this manuscript was provided by the Bloomberg American Health Initiative

Financial Disclosure: All authors indicate that they have no financial relationship relevant to this article to disclose.

Conflict of Interest: All authors indicate that they have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Clinical Trial Registration: None.

Contributors’ Statement:

Dr. Dylan B. Jackson conceptualized and designed the study, carried out the analyses, drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Dr. Rebecca L. Fix drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Dr. Alexander Testa drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Dr. Lindsey Webb drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Dr. Tamar Mendelson drafted portions of the initial manuscript, reviewed and revised the manuscript, and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Dr. Sirry Alang reviewed and revised the manuscript and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Dr. Lisa Bowleg reviewed and revised the manuscript and approved of the final manuscript submitted.

Jindal M, Mistry KB, Trent M, McRae A, Thornton RLJ (2022) Police Exposures and the Health and Well-being of Black Youth in the US: A Systematic Review. JAMA Pediatr 176(1):78–88. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2929
Geller A (2021) Youth–Police Contact: Burdens and Inequities in an Adverse Childhood Experience, 2014–2017. Am J Public Health 111(7):1300–1308. 10.2105/AJPH.2021.306259
Jackson DB, Del Toro J, Semenza DC, Testa A, Vaughn MG (2021) Unpacking racial/ethnic disparities in emotional distress among adolescents during witnessed police stops. J Adolesc Health 69(2):248–254
Jackson DB, Fix RL, Testa A (2024) Sleep Problems Among Black Youth Exposed to Police Violence on Digital Media. J Pediatr Published online March 28:114036. 10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.114036
Bowleg L, Maria del Río-González A, Mbaba M, Boone CA, Holt SL (2020) Negative Police Encounters and Police Avoidance as Pathways to Depressive Symptoms Among US Black Men, 2015–2016. Am J Public Health 110(S1):S160–S166. 10.2105/AJPH.2019.305460
Wilson BL, Wolfer TA, Wooten NR, Pitner R, Moore SE, Anders AD (2024) Am I Next? A qualitative study of Black college students’ experiences of stress, trauma, and grief from exposures to police killings. J Hum Behav Soc Environ 34(3):390–422. 10.1080/10911359.2023.2173353
Brayne S (2014) Surveillance and System Avoidance: Criminal Justice Contact and Institutional Attachment. Am Sociol Rev 79(3):367–391. 10.1177/0003122414530398
Smith Lee JR, Robinson MA (2019) That’s My Number One Fear in Life. It’s the Police: Examining Young Black Men’s Exposures to Trauma and Loss Resulting From Police Violence and Police Killings. J Black Psychol 45(3):143–184. 10.1177/0095798419865152
Nordberg A, Twis MK, Stevens MA, Hatcher SS (2018) Precarity and structural racism in Black youth encounters withpolice. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 35(5):511–518. 10.1007/s10560-018-0540-x
Trew JL (2011) Exploring the roles of approach and avoidance in depression: an integrative model. Clin Psychol Rev 31(7):1156–1168. 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.007
Aldao A, Nolen-Hoeksema S, Schweizer S (2010) Emotion-regulation strategies across psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clin Psychol Rev 30(2):217–237. 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
Dickson JM, MacLeod AK (2006) Dysphoric adolescents’ causal explanations and expectancies for approach and avoidance goals. J Adolesc 29(2):177–191. 10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.03.007
Tull MT, Gratz KL (2008) Further examination of the relationship between anxiety sensitivity and depression: the mediating role of experiential avoidance and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior when distressed. J Anxiety Disord 22(2):199–210. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.03.005
Alang S, McAlpine D, McCreedy E, Hardeman R (2017) Police Brutality and Black Health: Setting the Agenda for Public Health Scholars. Am J Public Health 107(5):662–665. 10.2105/AJPH.2017.303691
Jackson DB, Fix RL, Testa A, Webb L, Del Toro J, Alang S (2024) Cumulative Police Exposures, Police Violence Stress, and Depressive Symptoms: A Focus on Black LGBQ Youth in Baltimore City, Maryland. J Urban Health Published online April 12. 10.1007/s11524-024-00858-8
Crouch E, Radcliff E, Bennett K, Brown MJ, Hung P (2023) Child and Adolescent Health in the United States: The Role of Adverse and Positive Childhood Experiences. J Child Adolesc Trauma. Published online November 6. 10.1007/s40653-023-00588-0
Intravia J, Wolff KT, Piquero AR (2018) Investigating the Effects of Media Consumption on Attitudes Toward Police Legitimacy. Deviant Behav 39(8):963–980. 10.1080/01639625.2017.1343038
Evangelist M, Thomas MMC, Waldfogel J (2023) Child protective services contact and youth outcomes. Child Abuse Negl 136:105994. 10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105994
van Ginkel JR, Linting M, Rippe RCA, van der Voort A (2020) Rebutting Existing Misconceptions About Multiple Imputation as a Method for Handling Missing Data. J Pers Assess 102(3):297–308. 10.1080/00223891.2018.1530680
Jacobsen WC, THE INTERGENERATIONAL STABILITY OF, PUNISHMENT: PATERNAL INCARCERATION AND SUSPENSION OR EXPULSION IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (2019) J Res Crime Delinquency 56(5):651–693. 10.1177/0022427819829794
Welsh Carroll M, Flanigan ST, Gutierrez IIIN (2023) Black Lives Experiencing Homelessness Matter: A Critical Conceptual Framework for Understanding How Policing Drives System Avoidance among Vulnerable Populations. Public Integr 25(3):285–300. 10.1080/10999922.2022.2090779
Carbonaro R (2022) System avoidance and social isolation: Mechanisms connecting police contact and deleterious health outcomes. Soc Sci Med 301:114883. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114883
Weaver VM, Geller A (2019) De-Policing America’s Youth: Disrupting Criminal Justice Policy Feedbacks That Distort Power and Derail Prospects. Ann Am Acad Pol Soc Sci 685(1):190–226. 10.1177/0002716219871899
Wood G, Tyler TR, Papachristos AV (2020) Procedural justice training reduces police use of force and complaints against officers. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 117(18):9815–9821. 10.1073/pnas.1920671117
Terrill W, Paoline EA III (2017) Police Use of Less Lethal Force: Does Administrative Policy Matter? Justice Q 34(2):193–216. 10.1080/07418825.2016.1147593

The authors declare no competing interests.

AppendixFINAL090924.docx
Appendix

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Police Avoidance Among Black Youth

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

What’s New

INTRODUCTION

METHODS

Dependent Variable

Independent Variables

Analytic Approach

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1