Ethics approval and consent to participate
No applicable
Consent for publication
No applicable
Availability of data and materials
We use the GOES X-ray data provided by NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/stp/space-weather/solar-data/solar-features/solar-flares/x-rays/goes/xrs/. The FISM results are available at https://lasp.colorado.edu/lisird/ and observational EUV data of SDO/EVE also available at http://lasp.colorado.edu/eve/data_access/eve-flare-catalog/index.html. The GNSS data collection and processing were performed using the NICT Science Cloud. The Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) format data used for GNSS-TEC processing were provided by the following organizations: UNAVCO (ftp://data‐out.unavco.org), DGRSDUT (http://gnss1.tudelft.nl), Arecibo Observatory (http://www.naic. edu), CDDIS (ftp://cddis.gsfc.nasa.gov), CHAIN (ftp://chain.physics.unb.ca), CORS (ftp://www.ngs.noaa.gov), GDAF (ftp://geodaf.mt.asi.it), BKG (ftp://igs.bkg.bund.de), IGS (ftp:// rgpdata.ign.fr), EUOLG (ftp://olggps. oeaw.ac.at), Geoscience Australia (ftp://ftp.ga.gov.au), IGSIGN (ftp://igs. ensg.ign.fr), KASI (ftp://nfs.kasi.re.kr), PNGA (http://www.geodesy.cwu.edu), IBGE (ftp://geoftp.ibge.gov.br), RGCL (ftp://ftp.itacyl.es), TNG (ftp:// 196.15.132.3), SOPAC (ftp://garner. ucsd.edu), NRC (ftp://wcda.pgc.nrcan. gc.ca), GEONET (ftp://163.42.5.1), HRAO (ftp://geoid.hartrao.ac.za), GRN (ftp://rinex.smartnetna.com), GNNZ (ftp://ftp.geonet.org.nz), RENAG (ftp:// renag.unice.fr), SONEL (ftp://ftp.sonel. org), FRDN (ftp://www.crs.inogs.it), LINZ (ftp://apps.linz.govt.nz), ROB (ftp://gnss.oma.be), GOP (ftp://ftp. pecny.cz), RGE (ftp://62.99.86.141), RGNA (ftp://geodesia.inegi.org.mx), CENAT (ftp://ramsac.ign.gob.ar), INGV (ftp://bancadati2.gm.ingv.it), REP (ftp://158.49.61.10), SWSBM (ftp://ftp-out.sws.bom.gov.au), CORS (ftp://meristemum.carm.es), AFREF (ftp://ftp.afrefdata.org), WHU (ftp://igs. gnsswhu.cn), TLALOCNET (ftp://tla- locnet.udg.mx), NCEDC (ftp://www. ncedc.org), ODT (ftp://ftp.odot.state.or.us), SWEPOS (ftp://ftp-sweposdata.lm. se), EUREF (ftp://www.epncb.oma.be), IGG (ftp://ftp.glonass-iac.ru), SUGAUR (ftp://eos.ntu.edu.sg), NMA (ftp://ftp. statkart.no), NERC (ftp:// 128.243.138.204), RAMSAC (ftp://ram- sac.ign.gob.ar), and ERGNSS (ftp://ftp. geodesia.ign.es).
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Funding
This study was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP16H06286, JP16H01187 and JP18H04452.
Authors’ contributions
KW conducted the research and has responsibility for the results presented in this paper. HJ has responsibility for the GAIA calcuration and supported this analysis. SN, SI, TK and TK contributed to providing the physics-based flare spectra, and discussion as experts of solar physics. YO, AS, TT and MN contributed to providing TEC data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers JP16H06286, JP16H01187 and JP18H04452. Part of this work was performed by the joint research program of the Institute for Space-Earth Environmental Research (ISEE), Nagoya University. The GNSS data collection and processing were performed using the NICT Science Cloud. The Receiver Independent Exchange (RINEX) format data used for GNSS-TEC processing were provided by the following organizations: UNAVCO (ftp://data‐out.unavco.org), DGRSDUT (http://gnss1.tudelft.nl), Arecibo Observatory (http://www.naic. edu), CDDIS (ftp://cddis.gsfc.nasa.gov), CHAIN (ftp://chain.physics.unb.ca), CORS (ftp://www.ngs.noaa.gov), GDAF (ftp://geodaf.mt.asi.it), BKG (ftp://igs.bkg.bund.de), IGS (ftp:// rgpdata.ign.fr), EUOLG (ftp://olggps. oeaw.ac.at), Geoscience Australia (ftp://ftp.ga.gov.au), IGSIGN (ftp://igs. ensg.ign.fr), KASI (ftp://nfs.kasi.re.kr), PNGA (http://www.geodesy.cwu.edu), IBGE (ftp://geoftp.ibge.gov.br), RGCL (ftp://ftp.itacyl.es), TNG (ftp:// 196.15.132.3), SOPAC (ftp://garner. ucsd.edu), NRC (ftp://wcda.pgc.nrcan. gc.ca), GEONET (ftp://163.42.5.1), HRAO (ftp://geoid.hartrao.ac.za), GRN (ftp://rinex.smartnetna.com), GNNZ (ftp://ftp.geonet.org.nz), RENAG (ftp:// renag.unice.fr), SONEL (ftp://ftp.sonel. org), FRDN (ftp://www.crs.inogs.it), LINZ (ftp://apps.linz.govt.nz), ROB (ftp://gnss.oma.be), GOP (ftp://ftp. pecny.cz), RGE (ftp://62.99.86.141), RGNA (ftp://geodesia.inegi.org.mx), CENAT (ftp://ramsac.ign.gob.ar), INGV (ftp://bancadati2.gm.ingv.it), REP (ftp://158.49.61.10), SWSBM (ftp://ftp-out.sws.bom.gov.au), CORS (ftp://meristemum.carm.es), AFREF (ftp://ftp.afrefdata.org), WHU (ftp://igs. gnsswhu.cn), TLALOCNET (ftp://tla- locnet.udg.mx), NCEDC (ftp://www. ncedc.org), ODT (ftp://ftp.odot.state.or.us), SWEPOS (ftp://ftp-sweposdata.lm. se), EUREF (ftp://www.epncb.oma.be), IGG (ftp://ftp.glonass-iac.ru), SUGAUR (ftp://eos.ntu.edu.sg), NMA (ftp://ftp. statkart.no), NERC (ftp:// 128.243.138.204), RAMSAC (ftp://ram- sac.ign.gob.ar), and ERGNSS (ftp://ftp. geodesia.ign.es).