Toxoplasma gondii Prevalence and Risk Factors among Female Students at Al-Yemenia University, Sana'a City, Yemen

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5173450/v1

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Toxoplasma gondii Prevalence and Risk Factors among Female Students at Al-Yemenia University, Sana'a City, Yemen

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5173450/v1

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Background: Toxoplasmosis is one of the most common human infections worldwide. It is caused by the intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among female students at Al-Yemenia University in Yemen.

Methods: Two hundred female students were randomly selected for this cross-sectional study. The participants were screened for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies using an immunochromatographic technique (ICT). Demographic, socioeconomic, risk factors, and behavioural data were collected using a pre-tested questionnaire via face-to-face interviews.

Results:The seropositivity rate for T. gondii was (6.0%). The majority were from age groups of 18–20 and 21–24 years (41.7%), who lived in the urban area (83.3%), unmarried individuals (83.8%), and middle-income participants (66.7%), with a non-significant difference (P < 0.05). Female students who washed vegetables before eating had a high risk of T. gondii infection (OR = 4.810), followed by raising cats in the house (OR = 3.812), and had a history of blood transfusion (OR = 1.618).

Conclusion: This study reported low seroprevalence among female students at Al-Yemenia University, Yemen. Environmental sanitation, personal hygiene, and health education are all required for promotion in order to prevent Toxoplasma gondii infection among female students.

Parasitology

Infectious Diseases

Cats

Risk factors

Prevalence

Toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasma gondii

Yemen

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an obligate, opportunistic intracellular apicomplexan parasite with a complex life cycle [1]. It chronically infects about 30–50% of the human population worldwide [2]. Acquired primary infection with T. gondi is usually asymptomatic in immunocompetent people, but patients may experience fever, cervical lymphadenopathy, and retinochoroiditis with nonspecifc clinical signs [2].

However, chronic infection with T. gondii may affect human behaviours, cognitive functions, cryptogenic epilepsy, headaches, and schizophrenia [3–4]. The primary host is the domestic cat, and humans are usually infected through ingestion of infective oocysts excreted in cat faeces, which could occur through direct contact with cats or through water, food, and soil contaminated with oocysts [5–6].

Primary infection with T. gondii in pregnant women may lead to the development of congenital toxoplasmosis [7–8]. Active infection may lead to severe complications in the fetus or newborn infant, including brain or eye damage at birth or death of the foetus and spontaneous abortion [9]. The risk for toxoplasmosis increases with age, lower socioeconomic status, low education level, contact with cats, and poor hygiene practices [10–11].

Detection of IgM antibodies or both IgM and IgG antibodies indicates an acute infection. Negative results may suggest either a very recent infection or the absence of infection [12–13]. However, positive IgM results may be due to unreliable commercial test kits or because IgM can remain detectable in serum after an acute infection has ended [14–15]. To increase the sensitivity and specificity of the serological evolution, additional confirmatory assays such as seroconversion and IgG avidity testing should be done [16].

In Yemen, the published reports on T. gondii infections are entirely serologically-based surveys that indicate varied seroprevalence across the country. The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii infection has been reported to range from 14–65%, with seroprevalence of acute Toxoplasma-specific IgM antibodies ranging from 1.5 to 14% [17–22].

Yemen is one of the emerging nations lacking policies and plans in place to manage or stop the spread of harmful microbes among their populace [23–27]. Information on the frequency of Toxoplasma gondii infection among female students in Yemenia universities is scarce. Thus, the goal of the current investigation was to ascertain the incidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among female students at Al-Yemenia University, Yemen.

Study area and period

This is a cross-sectional study that was conducted from January 2023 to October 2023 and performed on women at childbearing age (between 18 and 28 years) from Al-Yemenia University, Sana’a Governorate, Yemen.

Data collection

Data was collected using a structured questionnaire, which was given to each healthy participant who was subjected to the current study. The questionnaire composed questions related to demographic clinical data and some other information, including age, marital status, and socioeconomic status on toxoplasmosis. Also, information on potential risk factors.

Sample size

The sample size was estimated based on the WHO’s practical manual for sample size determination in health studies [28]. At a confidence interval of 95% and a desired margin of 5% and based on the percentage of respondents with good CL-related knowledge (12.9%) [28], the minimum sample size required for this study was 173. The sample size increased to 200 female students according to the suggestion of the proposal examination committee.

Ethical statement

The ethical statement of the study was approved by the Research Ethics Review Committee of Al-Yemenia University, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Yemen. The college deans granted permission to start data collection. Before collecting specimens, the purpose of the study was explained to the managers of female students who agreed to be part of this work. Further, participation was voluntary, and participants completed a consent form provided by the investigators.

Sample collection

Aseptically, 5 ml of venous blood was collected from 200 healthy female students, aged. The blood specimens were then labelled and transferred into a sterile anticoagulant-free sterile bottle and allowed to clot, and the serum was used to detect the Toxoplasma gondii antibodies.

Laboratory assay

The rapid test technique was used to assess the Toxoplasma gondii antibodies. Each serum specimen was examined for anti-T. gondii IgG and IgM antibodies, put the cassette onto the desk with the sample window up, took 80–100 µl of serum with a pipettor vertically to each sample hole of the test device, added one drop of buffer, and read the test results immediately within 15–20 minutes [29].

Statistical analysis

The obtained data were analyzed by the computer software program, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 21. Categorical variables were reported as frequencies and percentages in tables and figures. Moreover, conﬁdence interval (95% CI) and odds ratio (OR) were used to assess the association between dependent and independent variables. Additionally, all probability values were considered statistically significant at P-values <0.05.

Socio-demographic parameters of study subjects

A total of two hundred of female students were enrolled in the current study. The highest proportion of specimens were collected from participants aged 21–24 years old (55.5%), who live in the urban areas (91.5%), unmarried individuals (82.0%), their father’s employment (75%), their mothers are working as housewives (81.0%), their fathers had a university certificate (36.0%), their mothers had a basic certificate (30.5%), and their families had a middle income (87.5%), as listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Socio-demographic parameters of study subjects

Variables	Categories	No.	%
Age groups (Years)	18-20	69	34.5
	21-24	111	55.5
	25-28	20	10.0
Residence	Rural	17	8.5
Residence	Urban	183	91.5
Marital status	Single	164	82.0
Marital status	Married	36	18.0
Father occupation	Working	150	75.0
Father occupation	Not Working	50	25.0
Mother occupation	Employee	38	19.0
Mother occupation	House wife	162	81.0
Father education	Illiterate	10	5.0
	Basic (Read and write)	25	12.5
	Primary	41	20.5
	Secondary	52	26.0
	University	72	36.0
Mother education	Illiterate	36	18.0
	Basic (Read and write)	61	30.5
	Primary	52	26.0
	Secondary	33	16.5
	University	18	9.0
Income status	Low	10	5.0
	Middle	175	87.5
	High	15	7.5

Prevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG and IgM antibodies

According to Table 2, the study revealed that 12 (6.0%) specimens tested positive for T. gondii IgG antibodies, while the remaining 188 (94.0%) tested negative for both IgG and IgM antibodies.

Table (2). Seroprevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii IgG and IgM antibodies among the examined women

Antibody types	Examined female students n = 200
	Positive		Negative
	No.	%	No.	%
IgG	12	6.0	188	94.0
IgM	00	00	200	100.0

This finding revealed that T. gondii infections were significantly higher among the age groups 18–20 and 21–24 years (41.7%), with a non-significant difference (P > 0.05). Additionally, a higher rate of T. gondii infection was observed among female students living in urban areas (83.3%) and unmarried females (83.8%). Regarding income status, the highest prevalence of T. gondii was reported among middle-income participants (66.7%), with no statistically significant differences (P = 0.920), as listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii according to socio-demographic parameters of study subjects

Variables	Categories	*Toxoplasma gondii* antibodies IgG
		Positive	Negative	Total	P. value^*
		No. (%)	No. (%)	No. (%)	P. value^*
Age group	20 –18	5.0 (41.7)	64 (34.0)	69 (34.5)	0.877
	24 –21	5.0 (41.7)	106 (56.4)	111 (55.5)
	28 –25	2.0 (16.6)	18 (9.6)	20 (10.0)
	Total	12.0 (100)	188 (100)	200 (100)
					780.2
Residence	Rural	2.0 (16.7)	15 (8.0)	17 (18.5)
	Urban	10.0 (83.3)	731 (92.0)	183 (91.5)
	Total	12.0 (100)	188 (100)	200 (100)
					0.920
Marital status	Single	10.0 (83.3)	154 (81.9)	164 (82.0)
	Maried	2.0 (16.7)	34 (18.1)	36 (18.0)
	Total	12.0 (100)	188 (100)	200 (100)
					0.152
Income status	Low	1.0 (8.3)	9.0 (4.8)	10 (5.0)
	Middle	8.0 (66.7)	167 (88.8)	175 (87.5)
	High	3.0 (25.0)	12 (6.4)	15 (7.5)
	Total	12.0 (100)	188 (100)	200 (100)

P value = P < 0.05: signiﬁcant)

The present findings showed that a high rate of T. gondii IgG was reported among female students who did not raise cats in their house (66.7%) (P = 0.801), did not change cat litter (66.7%) (P = 0.990), did not contact cats (75.0%) (P = 0.830), did not chew Khat (83.3%) (P = 0.566), did not contact soil (75.0%) (P = 0.246), and ate food from outside home (75.0%) (P = 0.246). There was no statistically significant association between participant behaviors with cats and soil and the prevalence of T. gondii infection (P > 0.05) (Table 4).

Table 4. Prevalence of T. gondii infections according to participant behaviors with cats and soil

Variables	Categories	*Toxoplasma gondii* IgG antibodies
		Positive	Negative	Total	P. value^*
		No. (%)	No. (%)	No. (%)	P. value^*
Raising cats at home	Yes	4 (33.3)	16 (35.1)	70 (35.0)	0.801
Raising cats at home	No	8 (66.7)	122 (64.9)	130 (65.0)

Changing cat litter	Yes	4 (33.3)	63 (33.5)	67 (33.5)	0.990
Changing cat litter	No	8 (66.6)	125 (66.5)	133 (66.5)

Direct contact with cats	Yes	3 (25.0)	65 (75.0)	68 (34.0)	0.830
Direct contact with cats	No	9 (75.0)	124 (25.0)	132 (66.0)

Chewing Khat	Yes	2 (16.7)	45 (23.9)	47 (23.5)	0.566
Chewing Khat	No	10 (83.3)	143 (76.1)	153 (76.5)

Contact with soil	Yes	3 (25.0)	79 (42.0)	82 (41.0)	0.246
Contact with soil	No	9 (75.0)	109 (58.0)	118 (59)

Eating food from outside home	Yes	9 ( 75.0)	162 (86.2)	171 (85.5)	0.288
Eating food from outside home	No	3 (25.0)	26 (13.8)	29 (14.5)	0.288

95% CI = Conﬁdence interval; P value = P < 0.05: signiﬁcant)

The current findings indicate a significant increase in T. gondii infections among female students who regularly wash their kitchen knives (P = 0.132), refrain from consuming raw or undercooked meat (P = 0.566), avoid untreated water (P = 0.316), wash vegetables before eating (P = 0.134), avoid drinking unpasteurized milk (P = 0.216), and do not receive blood transfusions (P = 0.658). However, there was no statistically significant association between these behaviors and the presence of T. gondii infection (P > 0.05), as presented in Table 5.

Table 5. The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infections according to risk factors.

Variables	Categories	*Toxoplasma gondii* IgG antibodies
		Positive	Negative	Total	*P. value^
		No. (%)	No. (%)	No. (%)	*P. value^
Regularly washing kitchen knife	Yes	9 (75.0)	168 (89.4)	177 (88.5)	0.132
Regularly washing kitchen knife	No	3 (25.0)	20 (10.6)	23 (11.5)	0.132

Consumed raw or undercooked meat	Yes	2 (16.7)	45 (23.9)	47(23.6)	0.556
Consumed raw or undercooked meat	No	10 (83.3)	143(76.1)	153(79.5)	0.556

Consumed untreated water	Yes	2 (16.7)	57 (30.3)	59(29.5)	0.316
Consumed untreated water	No	10 (83.3)	131 (69.7)	141(70.5)	0.316

Washing vegetables before eating	Yes	12 (100)	158 (84.0)	170(85.0)	0.134
Washing vegetables before eating	No	00 (0.0)	30 (16.0)	30(15.0)	0.134

Drinking unpasteurized milk	Yes	2 (16.7)	64 (34.0)	66(33.0)	0.216
Drinking unpasteurized milk	No	10 (83.3)	124 (66.0)	134(67.0)

History of blood transfusion	Yes	1 (8.3)	10 (5.3)	11 (5.5)	0.658
History of blood transfusion	No	11 (91.7)	178 (49.7)	189(94.5)	0.658

P value = P < 0.05: signiﬁcant)

Risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii infections

A high risk of Toxoplasma gondii infection was observed in female students who washed vegetables before eating (OR = 4.810; 95% CI = 83.432-0.277), followed by raising cats in the house (OR=3.812; CI=1.030-14.108), and a history of blood transfusion (OR=1.618; CI=0.189-13.808), as listed in Table 6.

Table 6. The major of Toxoplasma gondii infections among female students.

Variables	OR	95% CI	P-value
Raising cats in house	3.812	1.030-14.108	0.045
Changing cat litter	0.992	0.2877-3.420	0.989
Direct contact with cat	0.635	0.166-2.430	0.508
Chewing khat	0.635	0.134-3.008	0.567
Contact with soil	0.459	0.120-1.753	0.255
Eating food from outside home	0.481	0.122-1.896	0.296
Regulatory waching kitchen knife	0.357	0.089-1.428	0.145
Consumed raw of undercooked meat	0.635	0.134-3.008	0.567
Consumed untreated water	0.459	0.097-2.165	0.325
Washing vegetables before eating	4.810	0.2774_83.432	0.280
Drinking unpasteurized milk	0.387	0.082-1.821	0.230
History of blood transfusion	1.618	0.189-13.808	0.659

95% CI = Conﬁdence interval; P value = P < 0.05: signiﬁcant)

Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic intracellular parasitic protozoan that can infect intermediate hosts (including humans, ruminants, rodents, and birds) [30–34]. There are various explanations behind Yemen's high prevalence of infections, particularly. These challenges encompass living situations, economic and environmental factors, a lack of public health awareness, a lack of sanitary facilities and infrastructure, and a lack of access to safe drinking water [35–37].

The overall seroprevalence of T. gondii infection reported by this study was (6.0%), which is lower than the study carried out in women of childbearing age in the faculty of medicine and health sciences in Hodeida City, Yemen, who were seropositive for T. gondii IgG (14.5%) [37], and this rate is lower than that reported in other countries such as Brazil (71%), Lebanon (82.6%), Ethiopia (85.3%), Ghana (92.5%), Libya (32.7%), Sudan (23.6%), and Saudi Arabia (32.5%) [38–44].

Also, all the positive cases in relation to T. gondii have IgG antibodies, but IgM antibodies were not found among the positive cases, which is the is the same as the study carried out among women in Aden City [20]. The study showed that there was no significant association between positive T. gondii cases and the increasing age since old female students showed a lower ratio of T. gondii than young ones, which was inconsistent with several previous studies that reported a significant increase in the level of toxoplasmosis infection with increasing age [45–47]. Al-Eryani et al. [19] state that, in Yemen, old women have a higher chance of being exposed to T. gondii since they are responsible for agricultural activities and raising of animals [21]. The present study showed that there was a high prevalence of T. gondii among the female students who reside in urban areas, and this is consistent with other studies [19, 23], and at the same time, it is inconsistent with other studies [29, 48].

The current study showed the high prevalence of T. gondii among the female students who don’t have contact with cats and don’t change cat litter. This finding was in disagreement with several previous studies that pointed to the existence of a significant association between T. gondii and contact with cats and raising them at home [48–50]. There was a high prevalence of T. gondii among the female students who eat food from outside the home, who don’t consume untreated water, and who don’t chew Khat. This is in contrast with previous studies, which state that there was no significant association of T. gondii with these factors [19, 51]. The findings showed that all prevalence cases of T. gondii are among female students who regularly wash kitchen knives and who don’t wash vegetables before eating. And that is in accordance with previous studies [52–53].

In the present study, the findings showed that there was a high prevalence of T. gondii among the female students who don’t consume raw or undercooked meat. This was in contrast with previous studies, which refer to the association of T. gondii with consuming raw or undercooked meat [54–55]. The high prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii among the female students who don’t drink unpasteurised milk and the high prevalence of T. gondii among the female students who are single, who are from the middle class, and who don’t have blood transfusion history. These findings are inconsistent with another study [29]. The high risk of T. gondii infection was in the female students who was washing vegetables before eating (OR = 4.810; 95% CI = 83.432-0.277), followed by raising cats in the house (OR = 3.812; CI = 1.030-14.108), and had a had a history of blood transfusion (OR = 1.618; CI = 0.189-13.808). These findings are inconsistent with another study [29, 56–58].

Limitations of the study

The limitations of this study include a small sample size, serologic tests performed using rapid assays, and a lack of more advanced diagnostic techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), which is highly accurate and reliable due to limited resources.

Conflict of Interest

The authors have no conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the team investigators, including Eman Sailan, Hanan Al-Taheri, Taghreed Rabe’a, Maha Al-Kamim, Nosiba Althujiry, and Noora Hadi, for their generous help in collecting data and specimens. All authors would like to express their gratitude to the female students of Al-Yemenia University, teachers, doctors, and Al-Yemenia University chairman for their contributions and support during the various aspects of the study.

Author Contributions

Al-Wajeeh and Al-Hadheq conceived and designed the experiments; Al-Wajeeh performed the experiments; Al-Wajeeh and Nomaan analyzed the data and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Edress contributed to writing the manuscript. Al-Wajeeh and Al-Shehari agreed with the results and conclusions of the manuscript. All authors read, revised, and approved the final manuscript.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Toxoplasma gondii Prevalence and Risk Factors among Female Students at Al-Yemenia University, Sana'a City, Yemen

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