DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.2.14705/v1
Background: Postpartum depression explains various groups of depressive symptoms and syndromes that take place during the first 6 weeks following birth. The postpartum period is a critical time where both mild and severe mood disorders occur. The familiar forms are baby blues and postpartum depression. Determination of the prevalence and associated factors of postpartum depression is mandatory for early detection and treatment.
Methods: Institution based cross-sectional study was conducted from May to June 2018 by using systematic random sampling technique. The data was collected from each health centers and referral hospital. The study participants were eligible women who came to Debre Berhan referral hospital and health centers for postnatal care and vaccination service. The Edinburg postnatal depression scale was used to assess postpartum depression. The collected data were coded and entered into Epi-info version 7 and transported to SPSS version 20 for analysis. Both Bivariate and Multivariate Binary Logistic Regression were done to identify associated factors. During bivariate analysis, variables with p-value < 0.05 were included in multivariate analysis. Odds Ratios and their 95% Confidence Intervals were computed and variables with p-value less than 0.05 were considered significantly associated factors (multivariate analysis).
Results: A total of 308 mothers who attend postnatal care included with a response rate of 100%. The prevalence of postnatal depression was found to be 15.6 %( 95%CI=11.7, 19.8). Being widowed/widower (AOR=4.17 (95% CI=1.14, 15.20)), having poor social support (AOR=5.11(95% CI= 1.00, 26.18), having hospitalized child (AOR=3.32(95%CI= 1.39, 7.93), and having died close family or relative (AOR=2.92(95%CI=1.01, 8.50)) were significantly associated factor with postpartum depression.
Conclusions: Though significant proportions of mothers are depressed, the prevalence of postpartum depression was lower than most studies in different areas. It will be better if health care professionals give special attention to maternal mental health issues and consult mothers to mitigate the problem. It will be better if Health care professionals working in maternal and child health clinics to give special attention to mothers who are widowed/widower, having poor social support, having hospitalized child, having died close family or relative. Therefore, the authors failed to accept both null hypotheses.
Postpartum depression (PPD) refers to non-psychotic depressive episodes that begin in or extends into the postpartum period (1). According to The American psychiatric association (APA) postpartum or postpartum depression is defined as the occurrence of a major depressive episode (MDE) within 4 weeks after delivery (2).
About 14% of the worldwide burden of disease has been attributed to neuropsychiatric disorders, including those disorders that can occur during the postpartum period. Such estimates have drawn attention to the importance of mental disorders for public health (3). The estimated lifetime prevalence of having one or more of the mental disorders varies widely across the world as shown by mental health surveys, from 12.1% in Nigeria (4) to 47.4% in the United States (5).
Postpartum depression is a non-psychotic depressive disorder that affects 13% to 19% of postpartum women and those women with this type experience sign and symptoms like self-blaming thought, feeling of guilt about their inability to look after their new baby, low self-esteem, lack of interest in one’s environment, insecurity and suicidal thoughts. This condition begins in the postpartum period and persists up to a one-year duration after delivery. The treatment option for PPD women is behavioral counseling and anti-depressant therapy (2, 6–8).
WHO reported that for women of reproductive age group depression becomes the leading cause of disease burden (9). Postpartum nonpsychotic depression is a considerable public health problem and the most common complication of childbearing age that affect approximately 10 –15 % of postpartum women. In developing countries, the prevalence of postpartum depression ranges from almost equal to double than the developed world. The effect of postpartum depression on mother, her marital relationship and her children make it an important condition to diagnose, treat and prevent (10, 11). For the mother, untreated postpartum depression can have a prolonged adverse effect for the mother and her children. The episode can be the precursor or recurrent depression; a mother’s ongoing depression can contribute to the emotional, behavioral, cognitive and interpersonal problem in later life (12).
Epidemiological studies conducted in China, Japan, India and Arab women’s reported 13.5%, 17%, 23% and 15.8% overall prevalence of postpartum depression respectively (13–16). Another quasi-experimental study conducted among 420 consenting pregnant women on the title of postpartum depression in peri-urban communities of Karachi, Pakistan revealed that 28.8% overall prevalence of postpartum depression (17).
Having depression during the postnatal period affect the growth of the child due to the mothers care to the child could be decreased. Findings could benefit policymakers, the district health team, community members, affected families, and mothers with depression in designing strategies. Furthermore, the study possibly generates information in the area of the topic for large scale researchers to investigate further empirical evidence to control those factors attributable to postpartum depression in the study area. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of postpartum depression in Debre Berhan and to identify associated factors it.
Specific objectives:
Null hypothesis
The study area, design and period
The study was conducted in Debre Berhan town which found in North Shoa zone at Amhara regional state of Ethiopia. The study site had a total of one government-owned referral hospital, three health centers, five private clinics, and more than ten pharmacies. This town is found 130 Kilometers away from the capital city of Ethiopia; Addis Ababa. The facility-based cross-sectional study design was employed from May to June 2018.
Population
Source Population: All women who came for postnatal care and vaccination services within 6 weeks after delivery in a referral hospital and health centers in Debre Berhan, Town Ethiopia.
Study Population: Each eligible women who will come to referral hospital and health centers for postnatal care and vaccination service within 6 weeks after delivery during the data collection period.
Eligibility
Inclusion Criteria: All women who gave birth and who came for postnatal care and vaccination service within 6 weeks after delivery in health centers and referral hospital were included.
Exclusion Criteria: Women had a verbal communication problem and complete loss of hearing were excluded.
Sample size calculation and Sampling Technique
The required sample size was determined by using a single population proportion formula with the following assumptions: (Z α/2) = value for the 95% CI, = 1.96, Proportion of postpartum depression similar study at Gondar, Ethiopia (P = 24%), d = margin of error taken as 5%; by adding 10% of study subjects as nonresponse rate, the final sample size became 308. The study subjects were interviewed by using systematic random sampling after determining the sampling fraction and the first participant was selected by the lottery method. The total sample size (n = 308) was allocated proportionally according to the total number of postpartum care attendees and vaccination service at each health center and referral hospital, during data collection period the data was collected from each health centers (Kebele 04, Kebele 07, Kebele 08), and Debre Berhan Referral hospital by using systematic random sampling technique.
Study Variables
Dependent Variable: Postpartum Depression (yes/no)
Independent Variables
Socio-Demographic Factors: - (age, educational status, economic, marital status, employment, Monthly income, current residence).
Social Support: - poor social and husband support, domestic violence, unsatisfactory relationship with a mother-in-law, an unsatisfactory relationship in marriage
Substance Use: use of any substance during pregnancy for the non-medical purpose (like Khat, alcohol, and cigarette).
Obstetrics Factors: parity, unplanned pregnancy, losing or hospitalizing a baby, mode of delivery, pregnancy complication or illness, Stressful life event during pregnancy and undesired fetal sex
Previous Psychiatric History: - the history of depression and family history (first-degree relatives) of psychiatric problem
Data Collection Tools and procedures
A structured interviewer-administered questioner was used to collecting information from study participants. Sociodemographic, clinical, and obstetric factors were assessed by pretested checklists. The social support level was assessed by using the Oslo social support scale and Edinburg postnatal depression scale (EPDS) was used to assess postnatal depression. Data were collected with an interviewer-administered questionnaire from mothers who came for postnatal care and vaccination service.
Data Quality Control and analysis
The data collection instrument was pre-tested on 5% of the sample size out of Debre Berhan town to avoid information contamination and language clarity, appropriateness of data collection tools, the Estimated time required and the necessary amendments were considered based on it prior to the actual data collection. The data collectors were trained for one day on the techniques of data collection, the training also including the importance of disclosing the possible benefit and purpose of the study to the study participant before the start of data collection. The researcher checked for completeness and also the consistency of questionnaires filled by the data collectors to ensure the quality of data and also visited the data collectors as many times as possible to check whether he/she collected the data appropriately. The collected data was entered into Epi-info version 7 and analysis was done after the data was transported to SPSS version 20. During bivariate analysis, variables with p-value < 0.05 were exported to multivariate analysis. Crude and adjusted odds ratios were analyzed using bivariate and multivariable binary logistic regression analysis and the level of significance of association was determined at P-value <0.05.
Socio-Demographic characteristics
A total of 308 mothers were included in the study with a response rate was 100%. Among the study subjects, two hundred eighty-six (86%) were aged 25–45 years and almost 85% were married. The majority of the participants, 206 (66.9%) were attended formal (modern) education. Regarding ethnicity, the majority of the study participants, 234 (76%) were Amhara and 62 (20.1%) were Oromo. Two hundred sixty-eight (87%) of the participants earn monthly income greater than 2500 Ethiopian Birr. Almost sixty percent of the participant’s religion, 191 (62%) were orthodox Christian followers. Out of the total participants, almost eighty-five percent of study subjects were married (Table 1).
Obstetric and clinical characteristic
From 308 study participants, the majority of respondents 254(82.5%) were multigravida (give birth ≥ 2) and 54(17.5%) were prim gravida (give birth for the first time). Almost 80% of participants had two or more living child during the study period. Regarding abortion, 53(17.2%) were experienced abortion and 39(12.7%) were experienced the death of their child. Forty-eight (15.6%) of participants reported that the recent pregnancy was unplanned. Moreover, the sex of the last baby 189 (61.4%) were male and the rest were female. Regarding the desired sex of the last baby, 36(11.7%) of the respondents said that the sex of their infant was unwanted gender. Nearly 62% of participants, 190 (61.7%) were delivered spontaneously through vagina. 47 (15.3%) respondents were suffered from any diagnosed illness during their last pregnancy and 95(30.8%) study mothers reported their babies were admitted to hospital at least once before (Table 2).
From the total study participants, 62(20.1%) were responded that their close family or relative has died. 60(19.5%) reported there is serious diagnosed illness, Injury or assault happened to their close relative. 59(19.2%) were experienced parent or child death and 42(13.6%) participant reported that they were separated due to marital difficulty. In addition, 41(13.7%) study participants were unemployed / not been able to work in the last six month of the study period and also 40 (13%) were hit, slapped, kicked, physically hurt during last pregnancy (Table 3).
From the total study subjects 31 (10.1%) state that they had used any substance before pregnancy; out of them the majority were used alcohol; i.e. 21(67.7%). The remaining have used only Khat at least once in a lifetime. Regarding substance used during the last pregnancy 18 (5.8%) respondents have used any kind of substance, and of them all were used alcohol.
Of the total study subjects, thirty-one (10.1%) study subjects had known the previous history of psychiatric illness. In addition, 44(14.3%) study respondents had family history of known psychiatric illness and 28(9.1%) were diagnosed with chronic medical illness (DM, HTN).
Social support status was assessed by using Oslo–3 social support scale. From the total study participants, the majority 137(44.5%) had moderate social support, 114(37%) had poor social support and the rest had strong social support. Regarding husband support during pregnancy 175 (56.8%), 111(36) and 22(7.1%) strong, moderate and poor support respectively. 112(36.4%) study participants had no practical support from family member during pregnancy (such as cooking, washing, cleaning or child-rearing), and during puerperium.
Out of the total subjects, 48(15.6%) had a score of EDPS ≥ 13. Hence, the prevalence of postnatal depression among mothers who have postnatal care follow up was 15.6 %( 95%CI = 11.7, 19.8).
Binary Logistic regression was performed to assess the association of each independent variable with the outcome variable (postpartum depression). The variables that showed a significant level (p <0.05) during Bivariate analysis were added to the multivariate regression model. The model that contained twenty-two independent variables shown to be a significant associated in the bivariate analysis. The result of the multivariate analysis showed that only four variables are statistically significant. Widowed/widower, having hospitalized child, has a close family or relative died, poor social support) were a significant association with postpartum depression.
The result showed that study subjects who were widowed/widower were associated with postpartum depression: having four times higher in odds when compared with those who were married (AOR = 4.17, 95% CI = 1.14, 15.20). In addition, respondents who had poor social support were higher in odds to be depressed than those who had strong social support (AOR = 5.11, 95% CI = 1.00, 26.18). Respondents who had hospitalized child were nearly 3 times more likely to be depressed as compared to the respondents who had hospitalized child (AOR = 3.32, 95%CI = 1.39,7.93). In similar dimension, participants who had close family or relative died in last six month were three times more likely to have postpartum depression than those who had no died close family or relative AOR = 2.92, 95%CI = 1.01,8.50), (Table 4).
The overall prevalence of postpartum depression was 15.6 %( 95%CI = 11.7, 19.8). This was almost similar to other studies which were conducted in Delhi and adjacent states of northern India have found that 15.8 % (19). This similarity in estimation might be due to that both studies use similar study design and facility-based study.
The result of the current study was higher when compared to other similar studies done in Canadian which was 8.69 % (18). The discrepancy in estimation might be due to the different tools, assessment period, methods and economic status.
On the other hand, this figure was lower as compared with other similar studies done in Lebanon (20), Cameron (21), Uganda (22), Nigeria (24) and Egypt (25) which 21%, 23.4%, 17.4%, 22.9% and39% correspondingly. Discrepancy in estimation might be due to the different the number of the women’s who participate in the study, assessment period, methods and economic status; for instance the study in Lebanon was conducted in rural area by using flow up study with the sample size 396, whereas the study conduct in Cameron used case-control study design while this study used cross-sectional study design.
Similar studies from Ethiopia in Amhara region (27), Eastern zone of Tigray (26) and at Goba and Robe town of Bale zone, Oromia region (29) in which 32.8%, 19% and 31.5% of postnatal women were depressed respectively at their postnatal period; this is a higher prevalence report than the present study. Variation in estimation from this study might be due to the usage of different study design, sampling technique, and sample size. All of them used self-reporting questioner (SRQ) and community-based cross-sectional study design by taking 1319, 633 and 340 participants of postnatal women respectively.
Among the sociodemographic factors, study subjects who were widowed/widower were associated with postpartum depression: almost four times higher when compared with those who were married. This association was in agreement with the study done in Ethiopia (22). The agreement might be due to the fact that being married is support and important for mental health; especially women during the postpartum period.
In the social support dimension, respondents who had poor social support were higher in odds to be depressed than those who had strong social support. The association in estimation was in line with studies done in Malaysian and Pakistan (24), Cameron; Yaoundé (28) and Hiwot Fana specialized University Hospital in Ethiopia (11). In fact, having poor social support is one of risk of mental health problems.
The variables that were found to have an association with postpartum depression were having hospitalized child during the postpartum period. Respondents who had hospitalized child were almost three times more likely to be depressed as compared to the respondent who had hospitalized child. In a similar dimension, participants who had close family or relative died in last six month were three times more likely to have postpartum depression than those who had no died close family or relative. The association was in agreement with the study done in Gobe/Robe town; Bale Zone, Ethiopia (30). The possible reason might be due to the fact that experiencing life-threatening events during the postpartum period became intolerable and may affect the mental wellness of the mothers.
Limitations: Pregnant women with persisting depression already acquired before/during pregnancy were not excluded and this may further increase the prevalence of postpartum depression.
Conclusion: Though, significant proportions of mothers are depressed, the prevalence of postpartum depression was lower than most studies in different areas. It will be better if health care professionals give special attention to maternal mental health issues and consult mothers to mitigate the problem. It will be better if Health care professionals working in maternal and child health clinics to give special attention to mothers who are widowed/widower, having poor social support, having hospitalized child, having died close family or relative. Therefore, we the authors failed to accept both null hypothesizes.
Recommendations: It is better if midwife professionals routinely screen postpartum depressive symptoms and link to psychiatric services just like other reproductive health problems for mothers attending hospital and health centers after delivery.
Authors’ Contribution
AD: Analyze the data and write up the thesis report and the manuscript. KD and DT: select the title and develop the proposal. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.
Availability of data and materials: All relevant materials and data supporting the findings of this study are contained within the manuscript.
Ethics Approval: Ethical clearance was obtained from the Debre Berhan University ethical review board (IRB). Permission letter to each study health institution was written and permission letter was taken. Written informed consent was taken from each study participants.
Consent to participate: the manuscript did not contain individuals’ person detailed data in any form. Consent for publication: not applicableCompeting of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Funding: This study was not supported by any grant. Funding for data collection, entry, analysis and write-ups were provided by the authors.
Acknowledgment: Our thanks dedicated to Debre Berhan University and AMARI project. Kefyalew Dagne was supported through AMARI (Africa mental health research initiative) which is funded through the DELTAS Africa initiative (DEL–15–01).
19.Josephat Maduabuchi Chinawa, Odutola Isreal,Odetunde ,Lkenna Kingsaley Ndu .postpartumdepression among mothers in hospitals in Enugu south east Nigeria. 2016,23:180.
Tables
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of postnatal mothers who have postnatal care follow up at Debre Berhan health centers and referral hospital, 2018
|
Variables |
Category |
Frequency |
Percentage |
|
Age in years |
Youth (19-24) |
43 |
14.0 |
|
Middle adult(25-45) |
265 |
86.0 |
|
|
Marital status |
Single |
28 |
9.1 |
|
Widowed/widower |
19 |
6.2 |
|
|
Married |
261 |
84.7 |
|
|
Address |
Urban |
215 |
69.8 |
|
Rural |
93 |
30.2 |
|
|
Religious |
Orthodox |
191 |
62.0 |
|
Muslim |
15 |
4.9 |
|
|
Protestant |
55 |
17.9 |
|
|
Ethnicity |
Amhara |
234 |
76.0 |
|
Oromo |
62 |
20.1 |
|
|
Tigray |
12 |
3.9 |
|
|
Attended modern education |
Yes |
206 |
66.9 |
|
No |
102 |
33.1 |
|
|
Occupational status of mother |
Government employed |
84 |
27.2 |
|
House wife |
146 |
47.4 |
|
|
private employed |
58 |
18.8 |
|
|
Farmer |
8 |
2.6 |
|
|
Unemployed |
12 |
3.9 |
|
|
Monthly income
|
≤ 1200 |
5 |
1.6 |
|
1201-2500 |
35 |
11.4 |
|
|
≥2501 |
268 |
87.0 |
|
Variable |
Category |
Frequency |
Percent % |
|
Number of pregnancy |
1 |
54 |
17.5 |
|
≥2 |
254 |
82.5 |
|
|
Living child |
1 |
64 |
20.8 |
|
≥2 |
244 |
79.2 |
|
|
Sex of last baby |
Male |
189 |
61.4 |
|
Female |
119 |
38.6 |
|
|
Desired sex of the baby |
Desired |
271 |
71.3 |
|
Undesired |
109 |
28.7 |
|
|
Abortion |
Yes |
25 |
6.6 |
|
No |
355 |
93.4 |
|
|
Pattern of abortion |
Spontaneous |
47 |
15.3 |
|
Induced |
6 |
1.9 |
|
|
No of abortion |
1 |
49 |
15.9 |
|
>=2 |
4 |
1.3 |
|
|
Baby death |
Yes |
38 |
10.0 |
|
No |
342 |
90.0 |
|
|
Hospitalized baby |
Yes |
95 |
30.8 |
|
No |
213 |
69.2 |
|
|
Mode of delivery |
Vaginal |
190 |
61.7 |
|
Cesarean section |
87 |
28.2 |
|
|
Vacuum/forceps |
31 |
10.1 |
|
|
Planed pregnancy |
Yes |
260 |
84.4 |
|
No |
48 |
15.6 |
|
|
Illness/complication of last pregnancy |
Yes |
47 |
12.4 |
|
No |
333 |
87.6 |
Table 2:- Obstetric and clinical characteristic among mothers who have postnatal care follow up, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia, 2018
Table 3:- psychosocial characteristic among mothers who have postnatal care follow up, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia, 2018
|
Variable |
Category |
Frequency |
Percent (%) |
|
Have you yourself a serious illness injury or assault |
Yes |
42 |
13.6 |
|
No |
266 |
86.4 |
|
|
Has serious illness, injury or assault happened to a close relative |
Yes |
60 |
19.5 |
|
No |
248 |
80.5 |
|
|
Has spouse, parent or child died |
Yes |
59 |
19.2 |
|
No |
249 |
80.8 |
|
|
Has a close family or relative died |
Yes |
62 |
20.1 |
|
No |
246 |
79.9 |
|
|
Has major financial crisis |
Yes |
37 |
12.0 |
|
No |
271 |
88.0 |
|
|
Have sacked from job |
Yes |
12 |
3.9 |
|
No |
296 |
96.1 |
|
|
Have you unemployed/not able to work |
Yes |
41 |
13.3 |
|
No |
267 |
86.7 |
|
|
Have you had a separation due to marital difficulty |
Yes |
42 |
13.6 |
|
No |
266 |
86.4 |
|
|
Have you broken off a steady friendship/relationship |
Yes |
33 |
10.7 |
|
No |
275 |
89.3 |
|
|
Have you had a serious problem with close friend, neighbor /relative |
Yes |
37 |
12 |
|
No |
271 |
88 |
|
|
Have you lost /had anything stolen which mattered a lot to you |
Yes |
30 |
9.7 |
|
No |
278 |
90.3 |
|
|
Have you had any problems with police/court |
Yes |
18 |
5.8 |
|
No |
290 |
94.2 |
|
|
Have you ever been emotionally /physically abused by your parents/someone important to you |
Yes |
26 |
8.4 |
|
No |
282 |
91.6 |
|
|
Have you been hit, slapped, kicked /physical hurt by some one |
Yes |
40 |
13 |
|
No |
268 |
87 |
|
|
By whom |
Boy friend |
21 |
52.5 |
|
family member |
8 |
20 |
|
|
Stranger |
11 |
27.5 |
|
|
Has anyone forced you to have sexual activity |
Yes |
35 |
11.4 |
|
No |
273 |
88.6 |
|
|
By whom |
boy friend |
15 |
37.5 |
|
family member |
2 |
5 |
|
|
stranger |
18 |
45 |
Table 4. Bivariate and multivariate analysis of factors associated postpartum depression among mothers who have postnatal care follow up, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia, 2018
|
Variables |
Postpartum Depression |
COR (95%CI) |
AOR(95%CI) |
||
|
Yes |
No |
||||
|
Marital status |
Single |
10 |
18 |
4.28(1.81,10.13) |
2.70 (0.72,10.21) |
|
Widowed/widower |
8 |
11 |
5.60(2.09,15.03) |
4.17(1.14,15.20)* |
|
|
Married |
30 |
231 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Attend modern school |
Yes |
24 |
182 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
No |
24 |
78 |
2.33(1.25,4.36) |
0.76(0.34,1.71 |
|
|
Social support |
Poor |
34 |
80 |
11.69(2.70,50.67) |
5.11(1.00,26.18)* |
|
Moderate |
12 |
125 |
2.64(0.57,12.19) |
1.93(0.36,10.36) |
|
|
Strong |
2 |
55 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Husband support |
Poor |
8 |
14 |
4.43(1.65,11.8) |
0.70(0.14,3.57) |
|
Moderate |
20 |
91 |
1.70 (0.870,3.33) |
1.02(0.42,2.47 |
|
|
Strong |
20 |
155 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Has serious illness, injury or assault happened to a close relative last 6 month |
Yes |
17 |
43 |
2.77(1.41,5.44) |
0.28(0.080,0.96) |
|
No |
31 |
217 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Has spouse, parent or child died- |
Yes |
20 |
39 |
4.05(2.08,7.89 |
0.56(0.17,1.85 |
|
No |
28 |
221 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Has a close family or relative died |
Yes |
21 |
41 |
4.15(2.15,8.04) |
2.92(1.01,8.50)* |
|
No |
27 |
219 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Has major financial crisis |
Yes |
14 |
23 |
4.24(1.99,9.03) |
1.74(0.55,5.49 |
|
No |
34 |
237 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Have sacked from job |
Yes |
5 |
7 |
4.20(1.28,13.85 |
0.67(0.21,2.11) |
|
No |
43 |
253 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Have you unemployed/not able to work |
Yes |
15 |
26 |
4.09(1.97,8.51) |
3.21(0.68,15.12) |
|
No |
33 |
234 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Have you had a separation due to marital difficulty |
Yes |
13 |
29 |
2.96(1.40,6.23) |
0.72(0.22,2.40) |
|
No |
35 |
231 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Have you broken off steady friendship/relationship |
Yes |
14 |
19 |
5.22(2.40,11.37) |
0.75(0.22,2.50) |
|
No |
34 |
241 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Have you had a serious problem with close friend, neighbor /relative |
Yes |
13 |
24 |
3.65(1.70,7.83) |
1.86(0.51,6.81) |
|
No |
35 |
236 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Have you had any problems with police/court |
Yes |
6 |
12 |
2.95(1.05,8.30) |
0.62(0.19,2.05) |
|
No |
42 |
248 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Emotionally /physically abused by your parents/someone important to you |
Yes |
9 |
17 |
3.30(1.37,7.92) |
1.51(0.47,4.90) |
|
No |
39 |
243 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Had Hospitalized baby |
Yes |
27 |
68 |
3.63(1.926,6.84) |
3.32(1.39,7.93)* |
|
No |
21 |
192 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Pregnancy intention |
Planned |
35 |
225 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
Unplanned |
13 |
35 |
2.39(1.15,4.95) |
0.75(0.25,2.21) |
|
|
Forced sexual activity |
Suffered |
13 |
22 |
4.02(1.86,8.69 ) |
2.00(0.68,5.93) |
|
Not suffered |
35 |
238 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Family diagnosed psychiatric history |
Yes |
15 |
29 |
3.62(1.76,7.46 |
2.04(0.68,6.14) |
|
No |
33 |
231 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|
|
Had diabetic mellitus |
Yes |
12 |
16 |
5.08(2.23,11.6) |
2.40(0.69,8.35) |
|
No |
36 |
244 |
1.00 |
1.00 |
|