The Socioeconomic impacts of Eucalypt Plantations on Rural Livelihood in Western Gurage Watersheds, Central-south Ethiopia

Rural landscapes, particularly those close to human settlements and main roads throughout the highlands of Ethiopia, appear greener than the outelds because of eucalypt plantations. The most common factors for eucalypt plantations are two: fuel and construction demands and to generate income. This study tried to investigate the socioeconomic impacts of eucalypt plantations in Western Gurage Watersheds located in Central-south Ethiopia. The specic objectives are: to evaluate the socioeconomic importance of eucalypt plantations on the livelihood of farm households, and to assess perceptions on impacts of eucalypt plantation and copping strategies. Systematic and purposive sampling method was employed by selecting households with eucalypt woodlots from the list of each Woreda’s Kebeles. Close- and open- ended questionnaires were distributed to every fth households that possessed eucalypt plantations. Three hundred eighty three questionnaires were distributed and collected from households found in three Woredas (districts) namely Cheha, Enemorna Ener, and Eza located in the Watersheds. To supplement the information critical observations, discussions with focus groups and interviews with key informant were employed. The survey data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. To describe data acquired from critical observations, focus group discussions and key informant interviews; critical and logical qualitative data analysis technique were used. Descriptive and dispersive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, variance, standard deviation, p- value and correlation were employed using SPSS Version 20.


Introduction
In Ethiopia, farmers continued planting eucalypts because it is used as source of income apart from its e perceived undesirable effect on soil and water (Chanie et al., 2013). Eucalypt species provide a variety of socio-economic bene ts. Eucalypts provide fuel wood, charcoal, construction timber, poles, paper pulp, and nectar for honey production, eucalypts oil, medicine, shade, job and scenic value around compounds. Due to its fast growth, the foremost bene t of eucalypt species is its fuel wood use (Jagger and Pender, 2000;Teketay, 2000).
Beside the above, planting eucalypt is less costly than other growing agricultural crops in Ethiopia. The labor cost is only at planting, thinning and harvesting period which is once every three to nine years. Generally, social and environment services can be changed to better position in such a way that livelihoods and natural forests improved through plantation (Bukenya et al., 2009;Ketsela, 2012). Having eucalypt woodlots can also reduce women and children fuel wood collection time and energy and indirectly allows children to invest their time on their education (Zerga, 2016).
Eucalypt species can supply wood in good quantities within 4-5 years from comparatively small areas of land (Teketay, 2000). Eucalypt has been found to be useful in honey production and thus has been recorded in the honeybee ora of Ethiopia (Fichtl and Adi, 1994).
In some communities, eucalypt trees are regarded as a living bank account or insurance resource or life savior, since they can be cut and readily converted to cash during critical needs (Teketay, 2000;Negash, 2002;Negussie, 2004). In other communities, such as in the Gurage Zone, planting eucalypt is a privilege and obligation of all households not only for meeting household wood requirements and generate cash revenues but to preserve social pride and reputation (Negussie, 2004;Zerga, 2016). Today in many places, own grown eucalypt wood covers most of the construction wood needs of households and constitutes a substantial part of fuel wood consumptions (Bewket, 2003;Negussie, 2004;Mekonnen et al., 2007;Zerga and Woldetsadik, 2016). For instance, 45% of interviewed households in Chemoga watershed in Gojam estimated that between 75 and 100% of their demand for fuel wood is met by privately planted trees; while a further 20% indicated that these trees meet 50-75% of their fuel wood needs (Bewket, 2003).
In Gurage highlands wood demand for construction of the wood-extensive traditional tukuls, and the scarcity of wood sources from natural sources for such construction makes planting of eucalypt quite imperative (Negussie 2004, Zerga, 2016. In Arsi highlands of central Ethiopia, eucalypt wood grown by farmers supply 86% of rewood, 31% of charcoal, l00 % of leaves and twigs for rewood and 100% of poles used by urban dwellers. In rural areas the wood from eucalypt contributes to 92% of poles, 74% of timber, 85% of rewood, 40% of charcoal, 83% of posts and 91% of farm implements. (Mekonnen et al. 2007).
Farmers also grow eucalypt for income generation. In areas, such as northern, central, and southern highlands of Ethiopia where natural forests have been impoverished eucalypt farming is contributing up to 25 % of household cash income (Teklay, 1996;Teshome, 2004;Mekonnen et al., 2007). In general, the above ndings indicate that eucalypt has the potential to raise farm incomes, reduce poverty, increase food security, and diversify smallholder farming systems.
Especially, eucalypt can substitute industries' demand for wood product such as lumber, plywood, veneer, poles and pulp (Bekele, 2011;Desalegn and Tadesse, 2010). This study tried to investigate the socioeconomic impacts of eucalypt plantations in Western Gurage Watersheds. The speci c objectives were to evaluate the socioeconomic importance of eucalypt plantations on the livelihood of farm households, and to assess perceptions of communities on impacts of eucalypt plantation and copping strategies.

Study area
The Gurage Zone is located in Central-south Ethiopia with the location between 7 0 40' to 8 0 30' North latitude and 37 0 30' to 38 0 40' East longitude and covers an area of 5,932 km 2 . The Zone is bounded with Oromia Region in the west, north and east, Yem Special Woreda in the southwest, Hadiya Zone in the south and Silte Zone in the east. Topographically, the Gurage Zone lies within an elevation, ranging from 1,000 to 3,638 m. The highest point in the Zone is Mt. Zebidar.
The climate of Gurage Zone is affected by altitudinal gradients. The four traditional agro-ecological zones (AEZs), namely wurch, dega, woina dega and kolla are found in the Zone. However, woina dega is the dominant one. The average temperature ranges from < 3 0 C in the Gurage mountain chains to 28 0 C in the Gibe Gorge. The annual range of rainfall falls between 600 and 1,900mm. These ranges of agro-ecology have enabled the Zone to grow different types of crops, such as enset (Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheeseman) (hereafter referred to as Enset), cereals, pulses, oil seeds, vegetables and fruits as well as support livestock, sheep, goat and pack animals. Different wild animals and birds inhabit the Zone, owing to this climatic diversity.
As noted by Woldetsadik (1994), soil colors in the enset growing areas, like Gurage Zone, range from brown and black to red. Two of the soil groups, Pellic Vertisols and Euric Nitsols, are most common and cover more than 60% of the region. Depending upon the population pressure and local farming systems, Vertisols are intensively cultivated and mostly devoted to grain production in the dega (upland). However, they are left largely for grazing in the low plateaus, the lower woina dega (midland) and the upper kolla (lowland) sections of the region.
Based on the 2007 census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency (CSA) of Ethiopia, the Zone had a total population of 1,279,646 (1279646*0.5 = 1919469) of whom 49% are males and 51% are females. The Zone has a population density of greater than 450 person km − 2 . About 9.36% of them are urban inhabitants and the remaining are rural dwellers. Gurage Zone is one of the most densely populated areas in Ethiopia. High population pressure and a long history of settlement have resulted in an increasing quest for agricultural land, wood for farmhouse construction, fuel and other uses. This, in turn, has resulted in the degradation of the natural forests and shrubs along river valleys (Woldetsadik, 2003). Gurage Zone is divided by four drainage basins, namely Awash, Rift Valley, Blate and Omo-Gibe (Sahle et al., 2018). With the exception of minor deviations at local level, the streams in the Zone have a dendrite drainage pattern. The Western Gurage Watersheds drain to Omo-Gibe Basin and covers large areas. In the western parts of Gurage, several rivers and streams are available, which drains from East to West to Gibe River. The major rivers are Wabe, Winike, Megecha, Rebu, Zizat, Gogare and Dire. These rivers have several numbers of streams, which emerge from the Gurage Mountains and join at different locations. The rivers Winike, Gogare and Derie are the main rivers next to Wabe River, and together cover an area of 173,476 ha ( Fig. 2.1).
From these, the main watershed is Winike, which includes Megecha and Zizat rivers and covers an area of 117, 030 ha. The Gogare and Drie watersheds cover an area of 30,739 and 25,707 ha, respectively. These watersheds were selected due to their dense population and high coverage of eucalypts under expansion.

Secondary Data
To get clear understanding of the concept such as eucalypts' expansion, eucalypts' competition, income diversi cation, livelihood support and the like, secondary data from journals, theses, and reports were reviewed critically. In this part exclusion and inclusion approach, selecting and retrieving the appropriate and recent literatures were made. Thereafter the nal report ( ndings) was analyzed and synthesized to show and ll the research gap. For the purpose of the study, samples from three Woredas located within Western Watersheds of Gurage Zone were collected. The selected Woredas were Cheha, Enemorna Ener, and Eza. These Woredas were purposefully selected due to large coverage of the watersheds, dramatic expansion of eucalypts farming and thereby high eucalypts pole production To get primary data about the study, systematic and purposive sampling method was employed. Thus, after selecting households with eucalypt woodlots from the list of each Woreda's Kebeles, close-and open-ended questionnaires were distributed to every 5th households possessing eucalypt plantations. The main reason for selecting this sampling method is to avoid the inclusion of non-eucalypt tree farmers and to keep the validity of the representative samples (to cover large villages within the Kebeles).

Sample size determination
From the total 71,792 household population living in the three woredas (CSA, 2007), 383 household respondents were selected (Table 2.1) using the following formula by assuming con dence level at 95% and margin of error) at 5%. The sampling formula is shown as follow (Cothari, 2004).  To supplement the information, critical observations, discussions with focus groups and key informant interviews were employed. Each group included six up to eight members. Key informant interviews were conducted with well experienced individuals.

Method of Data Analysis
The survey data were analyzed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. To describe data acquired from observations, focus group discussions, key informants' interviews, critical and logical qualitative data analysis techniques were used. Data acquired from questionnaires were analyzed and summarized in a form of tables and graphs using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20. Descriptive and dispersive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, variance, standard deviation, p-value and correlation were employed.

Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the households
From the total sample households, 79% and 21% of them are males and females respectively. The majorities (78%) of the respondents were married. The remaining 21% and 1% of the respondents were widowed and separated respectively. With regards to educational quali cation, a high proportion of the respondents (67%) were literate. Among this 59% of them can read and write and 7% and 1% of the respondents completed elementary and junior education. Illiterate respondents constituted 33%. As to the religion composition of the households, about 59% and 37% of the respondents are Orthodox and Muslims. The remaining 3% and 1% are Protestants and Catholics.
The result shows that (Table 3.1) about 52% and 48% of the households have land holdings of 0.2 to 0.5 and 0.5 to 1 hectare respectively. The mean value of land holding size per household is 0.56 hectare. Hence the land holding size is extremely diminutive. Concerning livestock production, most of the respondents engaged in raring of cattle (48%) and followed by sheep (19%) and goat (19%). These three types of livestock collectively constitute about 86% of the whole livestock raring. The rest collectively constitute 14%. From the multiple responses; major source of exchange incomes include: sale of eucalypt poles (100%), remittance from urban areas (100%), sale of cereal crops (barely, wheat, pees) (81%), sale of fruits, vegetables, coffee and Chat (71%), sale of livestock (61%), and sale of enset and its byproducts (39%).

Purpose of plantations and average eucalypt poles sold
From multiple responses given (Table 3.3); households' purpose of planting eucalypts tree include for rewood (100%), construction including fencing (100%), sale (100%), soil and water conservation (80%) and farm tools (89%). As described in Table 3.4, 63% of the households sell 100 to 500 eucalypt poles per four years; about 10% and 21% of them sell 500 to 1000 and less than 100 poles respectively. Households who sell 4000 to 7000 poles are only 6%. This shows that 79% of the households sell greater than 100 poles per four years period.

Major objectives of economic activities improving income rst
From multiple responses of major objectives of households' economic activities (Table 3.8); crop cultivation accounted 100% for food and 100% for income; animal rearing accounted 100% for food and 70% for income; eucalypt tree farming accounted 100% for income; petty-trade accounted 100% for income; handicrafts accounted 100% for income; off farm wage employment accounted 20% for food and 100% for income; remittance money accounted 100% for income; and selling grass for animal fodder accounted 11% for income.   About 39%, 30.8%, 14%, 8%, 3.9%, 2%, 1%, 0.8%, and 0.5% of households improve their income by planting more number of enset, planting more eucalypts, cultivating crops, planting chat, raising more livestock, engaging more in non-and off-farm activities (part time works), planting more coffee trees, planting fruit trees (orchard) and seasonal labor migration respectively (Table 3.9).  (Table 3.10), the short-and long-term strategies to tackle the food shortage problems of the households include planting more eucalypt trees (90%), producing more crops (74%), planting cash crops (Chat, coffee, fruits) (62%), using irrigation farms (30%) and working on offarm activities (17%).

Demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the households
The results of the study indicated that the male household proportion is large and this situation may contribute for the expansion of eucalypts. This could be the fact that eucalypts planting is practiced more by males than females. Females engaged mainly in horticultural activities. The mean age of the respondents was about 59 years. This is adulthood age. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. Therefore many of them seem have enough understanding about the aspects of eucalypts in their localities. The age is also an ideal for a long lasting exposure in land use practice. More than three quarter of the As to the religion composition of the households, the majorities of the households are Orthodox and followed by Muslims, Protestants and Catholics. This indicates that in addition to fuel wood consumption, construction and market use; collectively all (100%) of the respondents consume huge amount of eucalypts products for fuel wood and other purpose during yearly celebrations of "Meskel" and "Arafah" From the multiple responses given major source of exchange incomes come mainly from sale of eucalypt poles, and followed by remittance from urban areas, sale of cereal crops (barely, wheat, pees), sale of fruits, vegetables, coffee and chat, sale of livestock, and sale of enset and its byproducts (Table 3.1). From multiple responses given; offarm activities practiced by the households, wage labor is practiced by all and followed by part-time trade in urban areas, seasonal migration, petty trade, weaving, handcraft, carpentry, and blacksmith ( The P-Values is < 0.00001 for each. Hence, the results are signi cant at p < 0.05 for both at and sloppy area plantings. The value of R is -1. This is a strong negative correlation, which means that high X variable scores go with low Y variable scores (and vice versa). Hence households are shifting from at areas to sloppy areas. Farmers shift to at areas when there is crop production failure in at areas, for transport accessibility and tenure security.
Collectively about 77.4% of them planted greater than 500 eucalypt trees. From this, 41.2% of them planted greater than 1000 trees (Table 3.4). This shows that the species is well adopted and practiced by the households. The mean values of households that planted less than 500, 500 to 1000 and greater than Page 10/14 8.99, 31.79 and 38.04 respectively. The P-Value is < 0.00001 for each. Hence the results are signi cant at p < 0.05 for all eucalypt planted. This indicates that households' engagement in planting the species at such amounts is attributable to its multipurpose value.

Purpose of plantations and average eucalypt poles sold
From multiple responses given; households' purpose of planting eucalypts are mainly for rewood (100%), construction including fencing (100%), sale (100%), soil and water conservation (80%) and farm tools (89%) ( Table 3.3). The total mean and standard deviation values are 358.8 and 31.64 respectively. The P-Value is 0.000024. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. This indicates that all the mentioned purposes are almost equally important for households. In line with this as reported by Zerga and Berta (2016) about 95% households use eucalypts for re wood, construction, source of income and farm tools. Similarly as reported by Negussie (2004), the inherent growth quality of eucalypts made their poles quite ideal inverted V shapes. Sturdy and long poles (12 to 15 m) with reasonable exibility and lightweight are preferred candidates. No other substitute has so far been employed as roof supporters, straight and sturdy eucalypt poles of about 5-7 meters long provide a stalwart support to the upper part of the roof by stepping on the 'waist' and 'shoulder' of the main pillar. Hence there is indispensable attachment of the species to households' needs (See Fig. 3.1).
About 63% of the households sell 100 to 500 eucalypt poles per four years; about 10% and 21% of them sell 500 to 1000 and less than 100 poles respectively (Table 3.4). Households who sell 4000 to 7000 poles are only 6%. This shows that 79% of the households sell more than 100 poles per four years period. The mean value is 224.5 and the standard deviation is about 130.4. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. As reported by key informants and focus group discussants, some households sell more than 80,000 ETB = USD 2402.4.

Preference of planting eucalypts to indigenous trees
From multiple responses given, households preferred planting eucalypts to indigenous trees because: it is fast growing (100%), good for fuel wood and construction (100%), pro table (has lucrative pro t, needs lesser labor (100%), needs lower capital (100%), can be used for multipurpose (100%), coppice itself faster than other tree species (100%) and more market demand) (93%) ( Table 3.5). The mean value is 379.37 and the standard deviation value is 8.18. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. This indicates that households' preference in planting eucalypt species than others is quite justi able. Eucalypt is used for construction at various stages (3 to 4 years-small poles, 5 to 6 years-medium poles, 7 to 8 years-big poles and greater than 9 years-logs). Due to its role in fuel wood and construction partly households planted the species in continuously as the rst farm forestry practice. As reported by Zerga and Berta  (Table 3.6). From 2013 to 2017 income from the same sources, households who accounted 12 % and 88% earned 5000-10000 ETB and > 10000 ETB from sell of eucalypts and followed by from sale of food crops, from non-farm works, and from other sources. The mean value of respondents is 187.7 and the standard deviation is 89.1. The P-Value is 0.014193. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. When we compare all income sources, income gained from the sale of eucalypts is much dominant than others. The study by Kebebew and Ayele (2010) also con rmed that income from eucalypt sale constituted the largest share compared with teff, wheat and barley and its contribution to household nancial income was 50%.
In the successive four years of 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017, greater than 10000 ETB generated from the sale of eucalypts by respondents accounted 56%, 60%, 61%, and 69% respectively. In the same successive years, 44%, 40%, 39% and 31% of the households accounted less than 10000 ETB respectively (Table 3.7). The mean value who generated less than 10000 ETB is 147.75 and the standard deviation is 17.98. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. The mean value who generated greater than 10000 ETB is 235.25 and the standard deviation is 17.98. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. The R value is 0.3131 and it is a positive correlation. This indicates that the trend of income generation is decreased for those generated less than 1000 ETB and increased for those generated greater than 1000 ETB from 2014 to 2017. Mekonnen et al (2007) also con rmed that eucalypts contributed 92 %, 74 %, 85 %, 40 %, 83 % and 91 % of construction poles, timber, rewood, charcoal, posts and farm implements wood sources for rural livelihoods.

Major objectives of economic activities improving income rst
From multiple responses of major objectives of households' economic activities; crop cultivation accounted 100% for food and 100% for income; animal rearing accounted 100% for food and 70% for income; eucalypt tree farming accounted 100% for income; petty-trade accounted 100% for income; handicrafts accounted 100% for income; off farm wage employment accounted 20% for food and 100% for income; remittance money accounted 100% for income; and selling grass for animal fodder accounted 11% for income (Table 3.8). The mean value for food purpose is 105.5 and the standard deviation is 173.4. The P-Value is 0.043541. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. The mean value for income purpose is 173.4 and the standard deviation is 121. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. The value of R is 0.0243. Hence it is a positive correlation. From the gures stated one can understand that crop cultivation and animal rearing are directly used for food supply and they are also marketable and used for generating household income. Others are practiced primarily for household income generation purpose. However, households' incomes generated from eucalypts and other activities can be used for purchasing food stuffs and sustain food security and thereby rural livelihoods.
Households improve their income mainly by planting more number of enset (39%) and planting eucalypts (30.8%), and followed by cultivating crops, planting chat, raising more livestock, engaging more in non-and off-farm activities, planting more coffee trees, planting fruit trees and seasonal labor migration respectively (Table 3.9). The mean value is 42.55 and the standard deviation is 51.74. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. From these gures we can understand that the role of enset and eucalypt collectively is nearly 70%. They rated income gained from these two as 1st and 2nd respectively. 4.2.6. Long-term strategies to tackle the food shortage problems From multiple responses, the short-and long-term strategies to tackle the food shortage problems of the households include planting more eucalypt trees (90%), producing more crops (74%), planting cash crops (chat, coffee, fruits) (62%), using irrigation farms (30%) and working on offarm activities (17%) ( Table 3.10). The mean value is 208.4 and the standard deviation is 117. The P-Value is < 0.00001. It is signi cant at p < 0.05. The role played by eucalypt plantations in mitigating such shortcomings seems much better than other activities.
The recent study by Ayele and Teketay (2020), also con rmed that planting and managing plantation forests by local people may help to improve and diversify their incomes, suggesting that local communities may have higher dependencies on plantation forests to meet their livelihoods.

Conclusion And Recommendations
Households in the study area plant eucalypt as a primary farm forestry practice partly for rewood and construction needs. Its contribution in ful lling nancial demand is sustainable and appears much better than other agricultural engagements. There is indispensable attachment between the purposes and household needs particularly in rewood, construction. Hence substituting it for rewood and construction by other in the near future seems very challenging.
The recent progresses of hydro electri cation establishments in the country may not substitute rural fuel wood needs at full-edged status in the near future.
Other superiority is as a result of its attractive price value due to the booming construction industry and other manufacturing needs in urban areas of the country.
The young farmers plant 1000 to 5000 eucalypt seedlings on lands previously covered by crops. As reported by focus groups the young generations resist advice from elders. In average about 22.6%, 36.2% and 41.2% of the households planted less than 500, 500 to 1000 and greater than 1000 eucalypt trees respectively. About 77.4% of the respondents planted greater than 500 eucalypt trees.
As reported by focus groups and key informants, some farmers started counting more than 100,000 ETB (USD 3003) from the sale of eucalypt products that was not happened ever in history. Farmers started generating greater than 5,000 to 10,000 ETB (USD 150.15 to 300.3) many times and 25,000 to 50,000 (USD 750.75 to 1501.5) some times. Thus, households rated income gained from eucalypt as 2nd next to enset. The increment trend of income generation from the sale of eucalypt is attributable to its fast growth, availability of road network, better market facility and attractive price value. Thus based on the ndings of the study, the following practical and policy recommendations are forwarded. establishing furniture, asbestos, plywood, pulp, insecticides and pesticides, detergent oil, menthol candy, and medicinal herb factories using eucalypt as raw materials,  The primary needs of eucalypt plantations ( rewood (a), poles for construction (b) & soil and water conservation.