COVID-19 Impact on Indian Food and Hospitality Sector with Speci � c Reference to Potato Crop


 Disruption through present pandemic is applicable to almost all the sectors of economy. However, impact of COVID-19 pandemic on Indian food, agribusiness and hospitality industry is largely experienced. Further, it is believed that fluctuations in arrivals and price surge of essential staple vegetables like potato can have severe multifold effects on hospitality sector including restaurants and online food delivery platforms. Keeping the vitality of these issues in mind, in present study we decided to keep potato as a focused commodity to be analyzed since it is the most popular vegetable across the globe. Daily data for potato arrivals and prices was considered for the date range between 1st January 2018 to 16th April 2020 using online mandi data from Agmark (government recognized site for vegetable price and arrivals). Arrivals and trends of price behavior over the coming six months during the pandemic was attempted to measure. Time series ARIMA model was adapted for this purpose. Azadpur mandi being the Asia’s largest mandi was purposively chosen as study area. Forecasting range suggested the stress in potato supply chain for coming 6 months also depicted that fluctuation in both prices and arrivals. This study forecasted that the potato price would increase by 58.7% by October 2020 compared to October 2019 and arrivals would be just 3.11% less compared to last year. Situation assessment through forecasted range can draw attention of policy makers to ensure streamlined chain of supply for essentials and preventing any devastating effects of COVID-19 on food and hospitality sector.


Introduction
In recent times, COVID-19 crisis has affected global food supply chain and has poised great threat to household food security, by disturbing national and international agricultural supply chains as well as hotel and tourism industry [1,2].As like other developing countries, India is facing outrageous crisis due to COVID-19, which has compelled all countrymen to remain under lockdown for uncertain period.COVID-19 has hit various sectors including agriculture, hotels, restaurants, tourism, food processing, packaging and other industries [3,4].The intensity of panic can be ascertained from the fact that it has curbed the agricultural food supply chain and has affected both farmers and consumers [5,6,7,8].This entire lockdown has resulted in disturbance of various segments of food, agribusiness and hospitality industry mainly due to closure of restaurants, hotels, local sweet shops, food vendors and tea stalls [9].Local restaurants and food cafes selling non-veg food are also badly impacted because of misinformation on social media about chicken as carrier of COVID-19 [10,11,12].Horticulture products especially fruits and vegetables due to highly perishable nature and high seasonal labour requirements had been adversely affected through this pandemic [11,12].Moreover, sealing of state and district borders has ceased the movement of carriers to and from mandies across the country, thus bringing the value of fruits and vegetables to stand still [13,14].This disruption in the agribusiness supply chain has affected the stakeholders on the demand side as well as on the supply side.Amid this situation, consumers are anxious and trying to stock vegetables (for household purpose and also owners of hotels and restaurants to ensure online food delivery), despite of the regular advisory notice from the government against food stocking during locked down and pandemic [5-8, 15 -18].Confronting people's quest of being t and retaining a healthy state, vegetables can be considered signi cant in providing a major source of vitamins and minerals; its importance is even mentioned in Vedic scripts of India in Sanskrit language [19,20].Some studies have identi ed potato as one of the major staple foods capable to contributing in future food supply of India in coming 10 years which is always overlooked due to more b attention on cereal crops wheat and rice [20,21].Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is called 'The king of vegetables', due to its role in multiple veg and non-veg dishes.Potato is assumed as fourth most important food crop in India after major cereals like rice, wheat and maize.Potato crop accounts for total production of about 52.5 MT in India, where Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and West Bengal ate the topmost producing states [22].
Many popular Indians dishes are incomplete without Potato.Potato is short duration crop (90-100 days generally), thus its availability is more as it can grow in rabi and kharif seasons.Potato provides essential carbohydrates, proteins and ber for consumption in lesser duration of time than cereals like rice and wheat.Therefore, potato could play an important role in achieving the nutritional security for the country.
Potato has become one of the most staple foods for most of the Indians due to the present crisis while it was always an integral part of diet having essential human nutrients as compared to other vegetables [23][24][25][26].Beside this contemplation of staple food, potential health attributes and nonperishable nature of potato has ignited its severe demand and stocking due to panic obsession across PAN India [24,26].This untimely incident has called for uctuations in demand and supply gap of potatoes in the country and calls for efforts to reduce the food wastage both at household level and institutional level (food wastage at hostels, restaurants, service mess, cafes etc.) [27].Repercussions of these gaps in demand and supply can have devastating effects in tackling and normalizing the situation.Knowing the severity of the issue, present study has attempted to examine the market arrival and price trend of potatoes in the Northern part of the country with speci c reference to Asia's biggest Azadpur mandi, Delhi NCR region.In the last few weeks, unprecedented price surge i.e. 28% to 38% in states like Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal has been observed, while other southern states like Maharashtra, Bihar and Assam has also witnessed an upward trend to 23-25 Rs. per kg than Rs.18 per kg [28,29].In Delhi NCR region, prices of potato retail market have hiked 25% in the last week of March 2020, however in normal season time, prices generally trend to be at a stationary phase during this period.Computations from the Ministry of Consumer Affairs also accorded the similar ndings and highlighted that the potato has become costlier by 60% over the last month, due to limited ow of cash in market, as a result, people have started using mobile based or online payments more which further lead to lack of liquid cash in vegetable supply chain market [16,17,18,30].From the supplier side perspective, major hindrances observed in present Corona crisis include labour shortage, lack of transportation facilities, untimely rains, farmers shift to alternate crops disillusioned by previous losses e.g.area under potato in Punjab has shrunk by 35% [31][32][33][34].Amid lockdown, the circumstances in Azadpur mandi have also ceased, due to limited buyers as many retailers and shopkeepers are unable to reach here [5-8, 35, 36].Various potato traders in Azadpur mandi are refusing farmers for the produce because the presently available kacha potato is not feasible for long term storage [35,36].Keeping the sensitivity of the situation in mind, market intelligence on potential arrivals and prices of potatoes in the coming days is going to be very crucial and would require much attention for the government and policy makers.
Several attempts have been made in the past by academicians to develop price forecast models for various agricultural commodities.Most general class model for price forecasting used in various agricultural commodities over the years is ARIMA model [37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44].Seasonal ARIMA (SARIMA) model for time series analysis speci cally for analyzing potato prices and arrivals has been used by various scholars in different markets of the country [43,44].Chandran and Pandey (2007) have studied the seasonal uctuation of potato price in Delhi market using seasonal ARIMA (SARIMA) approach [45]; while Kumar et al., 2011, Mithiya et al., 2019and Mishra et al., 2019 used similar models for forecasting monthly prices of potato in Bangalore, Hooghly West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh, respectively [43,46,47].Over the years, advancement in forecasting models has been observed along with use of Arti cial Intelligence [47].Choudhary et al., (2019) have studied potato forecasting with an arti cial neural network with a single hidden layer in the Delhi market [48].Choudhary et al., (2018) in their study on potato price analysis in Delhi advocated the use of Empirical Model Decongation (EMD) to accurately analyze nonstationary and non-linear properties in price series data [49].However, computing the impact of present unforeseen COVID-19 situation on potato arrivals and price trends in Delhi, Azadpur market considered to be the need of present hour which may provide an insight and contribute to the policy makers and government for tackling any havoc issues in upcoming crucial time.
In this paper we focus on examining and forecasting seasonal uctuation of potato arrivals and price trends due to the present severe situation of COVID-19 which has mainly impacted the time period of Feb-May 2020.

Materials And Methods
Source of data: To get the data for potato prices and arrivals, we chose the o cial site of government of India called Agmarknet (https://agmarknet.gov.in/).This site provides information about all the agriculture commodity being grown in India, where price of commodity is provided in INR per ton and quantity of commodity arrived in mandi is provided in quintals [50].
Area Studied: Azadpur Mandi is Asia's biggest fruit and vegetable market, spread over almost 44 acres in north-west Delhi.The mandi has almost 1,400 shops and handles almost 50 lakh tonnes of produce every year.Azadpur mandi of Delhi NCR, was purposely selected since everyday huge quantity of potato is traded in this mandi, this makes it a most favorable market to conduct forecasting study of price and quantity arrivals of potato in Northern India [51].
Major potato producing areas in India are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Haryana.However, potato comes to Azadpur mandi mainly from Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.Uttar Pradesh is one the highest potato producing state of India (see g.

Private Channels
The different private agencies such as Producers, Commission agent, Wholesaler, Retailer and consumers are involved in the route of marketing channels of potato.These are: 1) Producer___Cold storage___Commission agent___Wholesaler___Retailer___Consumer 2) Producer___Commission agent___Wholesaler___Retailer___Consumer 3) Producer___Wholesaler___Retailer___Consumer Potato supply chain in India is 96% dependent on the private sector (see g. 3).It is characterized by highly integrated rural, semi-urban and urban areas.Private channels are active in wholesaling (both onmarket in mandis and off-market in rural towns), processing, logistics, retailing (for example, kiranas, haats), and food services (such as small restaurants and street meal vendors, or dhabas).These private institutions are part of potato supply chain in Azadpur mandi and clusters of potato cold storages in Agra serving the Delhi market [28,29,32,33].
Duration: Duration of data collection was 1 st January 2018 to 16 th April 2020.Day-wise data of potato arrivals and potato prices were studied to get highly accurate data forecast for next 6 months (approximately 200 days) [50].
Technique used: ARIMA forecasting technique was used to predict the potato arrivals and potato prices for coming 6 months at Azadpur mandi (Delhi NCR).ARIMA models are best for non-stationary data example daily prices of vegetables or daily stock prices.In ARIMA, the initial differencing step is incorporated a few or multiple times to remove or reduce the data non-stationarity.The AR part of ARIMA represents regressed own lagged values of the evolving variable of interest.The MA part considers regression error as linear combination of error terms (values of error terms are believed to have occurred contemporaneously and at multiple times in the past).I (stands for "integrated") represents the data values were replaced with the difference between their values and the previous values.ARIMA models works in a function to provide the best t forecasted model using the given values.However, in situation, where two out of the three terms are zeros, the model is called as base on the nonzero parameter, dropping "AR", "I" or "MA" parts of the models.For example, ARIMA (1,0,0) is AR (1), ARIMA (0,1,0) is I(1), and ARIMA(0,0,1) is MA(1).ARIMA models could be best understood using Box-Jenkins approach.Where, time series of data is Xt, t is an integer index, Xt are real numbers and an ARMA (p, q) model is given as: Here L is the lag operator and are the parameters of the autoregressive part of the model are the parameters of the moving average part and are error terms.The error terms pre-assumed to be independent and identically distributed variables [53,54].

Price Forecast of Potato in India
Potato in North India is majorly a Rabi season crop, where potato tuber is sown in eld in mid-September to November and nal harvesting is done in months of December to March (see g 4a).About 98% of potato is harvested as a rabi crop.However about 1.5-2% potato crop is also harvested as kharif crop, where sowing is done in June and harvested in September to November.Thus, potato prices are generally highest in September to November every year, due to high demand of potato as seed tuber and demand for potato for consumption in hostels and restaurants (due to Dussehra and Diwali vacations).Potato prices drop drastically after December every year since new harvested crop is ready to come in the market.However unlike 2018 and 2019, the prices of potato that goes high in September to November and comes down in December to March, due to COVID-19, the prices continued to increase.There was lot of chaos and unrest in people regarding the decision of locked down thus people started to make bulk purchases to stock the potatoes for 15-30 days, thus the prices of potato continued to rise [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38].
Potato trends were quite stable in 2018 and 2019, where price goes high during September to November and then comes down.The major Potato producing states are Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Assam, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Haryana.However, in January 2020, apart from the COVID-19 pandemic, other reasons for increase in price of potato crop were potato blight in some part of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.The potato harvesting was also adversely affected during December 2019 and January 2020 because of rains and cold spell in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh [15,16].
Potato prices in March 2020 and April 2020 were Rs.12.79 and Rs.14.09 which is almost 75% higher compared to prices of March 2019 and April 2019 (see g 4b).
Looking at the continuous rise in potato prices, we decided to reduce the seasonality of data using best t ARIMA best.The residual plot of ARIMA models (4,1,0) and (0,1,0) for next 6 months revealed that the model was best t with p value less than 0.001 (see g. 5).According to data from Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee (APMC) in Azadpur, the trade of potatoes due to long storage life, has not been affected much during COVID-19.However, many retailers are taking advantage of the fact that there is a disruption in the supply chain and goods are not being able to reach markets.Some local shopkeepers are also taking advantage of the shortage to sell at potato higher market rates, but if this shortage of supply continues in retail markets, the prices will automatically start going up [15,16].
The forecasted model revealed that nancial burden on common man's pocket would continue to rise in 2020 due to the rising prices of potato.We tried to forecast average wholesale prices at Azadpur mandi for next 6 months (see appendix table 1).As per forecasted model, in May 2020 the average price of potato would be about Rs, 15/kg (Rs.1530 per quintal).In the month of June 2020, the forecasted average price would be Rs.16/ kg, followed by Rs. 19/ kg in July 20202, Rs. 19.50/kg in August 2020 and about Rs. 22/kg in September 2020 and October 2020 (see g. 6).It was forecasted that the potato price would increase by 58.7% by October 2020 compared to October 2019.In the last few months, retail prices of potatoes have increased by more than 60-100 percent since 2018 and 2019.The wholesale price of potato has gone up to Rs. 12-15 per kg.Maximum retail price could go upto Rs. 30-40 due to potato stocking by traders and bulk potato purchases by people.Potato prices have increased by two to three times in December as compared to the last year.The maximum wholesale price in Azadpur mandi was Rs 21 per kg, which was about Rs 6-10 per kg in December 2018.Looking at the current situation, potato traders have increased prices due to reduced arrival of new potatoes from Punjab and untimely rains.However, retail prices will remain at the 20-25 level for coming 6 months (May-October) due to supply of potatoes from cold storages and supply of new potatoes from UP from Kharif season crop [30][31][32].
Another possible cause for price rise in COVID-19 scenario is increased marketing cost and marketing margin due to limited availability of labour, logistic facilities and storage facilities.Marketing cost includes actual expenses required for bringing potato from farm gate to the consumers, handling charges at local points, transportation and storage costs, handling charges by wholesaler's and retailer to consumers, expenses on secondary services like nancing, risk taking and market intelligence and pro t margins taken out by different agencies.The marketing margins of potato are the difference between the actual price paid by the consumer and the price received by farmer for an equivalent quantity and quality of potato.Potato prices are expected to remain 20% higher year-on-year because of the adverse market conditions created by COVID-19 pandemic [33][34][35][36].When compared to last year, price of potato in April was 75% lower, due to effective supply chain.Potato prices might further increase till September due to disturbed supply chain, increase in number of Coronavirus positive cases at Azadpur mandi traders and travel restrictions which would dent the future arrivals and transactions [55].

Forecast of Potato Arrivals in India
Due to COVID-19 pandemic, more than 95% Potato is coming months would be sold from cold storages.It can be observed that potato arrivals plunged immediately after the lockdown.Despite the government's decision to keep the Azadpur mandi open and to exempt agricultural activity and transport from lockdown restrictions, arrivals remained low in March and April 2020.Potato arrivals were over 40% lower than the previous year for the month of April (see g 7a) [15,16].
APMC informed mandi traders that they would only be allowed to bring in one truck each per day.The APMC also decided to allow trade in alternate auction sheds only.These moves are meant to prevent the mandi from becoming another hotspot of COVID-19 infections but are also likely to further reduce the volumes of potatoes arriving at the mandi [15,16].Another study revealed that potato prices usually plummet in India by January as fresh arrivals gather pace in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, West Bengal and Haryana.Potato arrivals in January this year were 5% less than January 2019 and 14% less than January 2018 (see g 7b When news of the lockdown was announced, people bought potato in bulk and stored it amid fears that they might not get their supplies later [18][19][20].This led to the spurt in prices and decline in arrivals.To get the accurate forecast about potato arrivals in Azadpur mandi, ARIMA model (5,1,0) (0,1,0) were used to reduce seasonality of data occurred due to COVID-19 crisis (see g. 8) [54].
The COVID-19 lockdown caused a 40-50% drop in the volume of potatoes arriving at the Azadpur mandi, according to analysis of the market arrivals data [50] (see appendix table 2).As per our forecasted model, average potato arrival in May 2020 in Azadpur mandi would be about 602.45 tonnes which is 46.08% and 33.96% lesser than potato arrival in May 2019 and May 2018.By June 2020, the potato arrival would increase to 717.7 tonnes, followed by 826.13 tonnes in July 2020, 1042.1 tonnes in August 2020, 1009.3 tonnes in September 2020 and nally 1228.5 tonnes in October 2020 (see g 9).As per the forecasted model, potato arrivals in June 2020 24.45% less than June 2019, however till October 2020, the potato arrival would increase and arrivals would be just 3.11% less compared to October 2019.Potato arrivals and prices have remained uctuated from the beginning of this year, as harvesting was delayed due to unseasonal rains.It was expected that potato prices would fall from March onwards due to increase potato arrival from UP and Punjab, but that didn't happen as a sudden demand emerged due to the lockdown [28,29].About 60-65% of the cold storages in UP have been loaded with potatoes.Still potatoes are in Azadpur mandi coming from Agra and Allahabad [50-55].

Discussion
Azadpur mandi is considered to be one of the largest vegetables and fruits market in Asia.Fruits and vegetable from Azadpur mandi are supplied to Delhi and NCR, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and some markets of Southern India.Due to COVID-19 crisis, a drop of 50% was recorded in prices potato by May 1st, 2020.By 30 April 2020, the potato prices touched Rs. 15/kg which is more than double last year's price of Rs 7-8/kg.Due to the shortage of potato supply, the prices this year rose very high, however by the month of September 2020, the potato prices are forecasted to get stable.Potato being the staple food, widely recognized by vegetarians and mass transformation towards vegetarian diet fearing present pandemic makes it valuable and therefore, was considered as focus commodity in this study.Moreover, because of present pandemic major focus of people is towards the vegetarian diet.Present study emphasizes the impact of present pandemic on focus commodity potato arrivals and prices for coming 6 months.Further, it is recognized that potato supply chain in Azadpur market is majorly dependent on private channels which further links food service sector referring to small restaurants, street meal vendors or dhabas.HORECA industry in India is huge comprising of 4 lakh crore turn over and over 7 million people are directly employed.Keeping in view the huge size of industry, state level authorities decided to open online food delivery channels but due to shortage of essential commodity like potato, surge in the rate of dishes emerged.As per the analysis of last 2-year daily potato arrivals and prices data by using analytical framework as ARIMA model and forecasted range for arrivals and price trend was worked out for next 6 months.It is observed from the forecasted range that the supply of potato can further worsen up resulting in higher prices.These devastating effects can result in costlier food items and dishes with potato as an ingredient and other essentials like onions.These all incidents have adverse effects on hospitality industry including restaurants and online delivery platforms like Zomato, Swiggy in India.[16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][49][50][51][52][53][54][55].
Traditionally in Azadpur mandi, potato supply directly moves from farmers to retailers between December and April, and then potato comes to cold stores after May [51].Situations arising due to the pandemic like locked down, sealing of borders, hoarding, sudden spike in demand further added to the increase in prices of potato.Delhi and adjoining states witnessed price hike of potatoes more than 80-100% compared to last 2 consecutive years.Due to increased demand and broken supply chain, the potato arrivals at Azadpur mandi was adversely impacted [35,36].Broken vegetable supply chain also negatively affected the HORECA (Hotels, restaurants and cafes) segment including hotels and restaurant and marriage palaces [36].The forecast of next 6 months in the study revealed that potato price and arrivals forecast is majorly affected due to COVID-19.India has majorly unorganized fruits and vegetable sector mainly consisting of small hawkers, vendors and temporary vegetable stores.Fluctuations in demand of potato prices and lack of supply, has pose a major threat to the livelihood earnings of the vegetable vendors, who were already facing challenges like lack of labour and transportation facilities due to the lockeddown.Even big traders are afraid to do trading and to physically come to vegetable market due to the fear of getting the COVID infection [11][12][13][14].
Supplies arrival in Azadpur mandi has lowered to 55-60%, which is going to escalate about 60-80% thus resultant on a higher price of potatoes.Average post-harvest losses of potato in India are recorded at an average rate of 30%.Due to late arrivals and delayed transactions there is an increment trend in the high post-harvest losses which is affecting the functioning of whole supply chain [15][16][17][18].These evidences of price uctuations can be advocated for strong policy framework ensuring smooth supply chain of Potato considering forecasted range in this case.This will not only realize the demarcation of demand and supply appraisal in local markets but price surge and availability of essentials to hospitality industry can also be ensured.Further, this study can be replicated for assessing the impacts of other commodities which are price sensitive and accordingly suitable layout for market intelligence ensuring prices and arrivals can be suggested [55,56].

Conclusion
Due to present pandemic unforeseen turbulences were observed in every sector constituent of the economy.Food, Agribusiness and HORECA industry are also seemed to be severely affected due to this crisis.Along with speeding up the impact of pandemic in India, people foresighted emergency and thus panic buying started.Situation got more affected with declaration of nationwide lockdown.On supply side, labour shortage, transportation issues, incidences of corona positive traders in Azadpur mandi has ignited the problem to next level.With such uctuations, it is realized that essentials must be addressed, and uctuations in demand and supply gap must be properly monitored.Potato being the staple food, widely recognized by vegetarians and mass transformation towards vegetarian diet fearing present pandemic makes it valuable and therefore, was considered as focus commodity in this study.Moreover, because of present pandemic major focus of people is towards the vegetarian diet.Present study emphasizes the impact of present pandemic on focus commodity potato arrivals and prices for coming 6 months.As per forecasted model, in May 2020 the average price of potato would be about Rs, 15/kg (Rs.1530 per quintal).In the month of June 2020, the forecasted average price would be Rs.16/ kg, followed by Rs. 19/ kg in July 20202, Rs. 19.50/kg in August 2020 and about Rs. 22/kg in September 2020 and October 2020.As per our forecasted model, average potato arrival in May 2020 in Azadpur mandi would be about 602.45 tonnes which is 46.08% and 33.96% lesser than potato arrival in May 2019 and May 2018.By June 2020, the potato arrival would increase to 717.7 tonnes, followed by 826.13 tonnes in July 2020, 1042.1 tonnes in August 2020, 1009.3 tonnes in September 2020 and nally 1228.5 tonnes in October 2020.Further, it is recognized that potato supply chain in Azadpur market is majorly dependent on private channels which further links food service sector referring to small restaurants, street meal vendors or dhabas.HORECA industry in India is huge comprising of 4 lakh crore turn over and over 7 million people are directly employed.Keeping in view the huge size of industry, state level authorities decided to open online food delivery channels but due to shortage of essential commodity like potato, surge in the rate of dishes emerged.As per the analysis of last 2-year daily potato arrivals and prices data by using analytical framework as ARIMA model and forecasted range for arrivals and price trend was worked out for next 6 months.It is observed from the forecasted range that the supply of potato can further worsen up resulting in higher prices.These devastating effects can result in costlier food items and dishes with potato as an ingredient and other essentials like onions.These all incidents have adverse effects on hospitality industry including restaurants and online delivery platforms like Zomato, swiggy in India.
(Point forecast-Average forecasted arrivals for each day; Lo 80-Lower arrival limit at 80% con dence interval, Hi-Higher arrival limit at 80 % con dence interval, Lo 95-Lower arrival limit at 95% con dence interval, Hi-Higher arrival limit at 95% con dence interval)   The institutional channels involved in potato supply chain at Azadpur mandi (Delhi NCR) The private channels involved in potato supply chain at Azadpur mandi (Delhi NCR) Page 28/32 1) [52].Channels involved in marketing of potato at Azadpur mandi (Delhi NCR) 1. Institutional Channels The institutions involve in the marketing channels of potato as follows: 1) Producer___ State Marketing Agencies ___ Retailer ___ Consumer 2) Producer___ Co-operative Societies ___ Retailer ___ Consumer 3) Producer___ NAFED ___ Retailer ___ Consumer 4) Producer___ Marketing Federation (MARKFED) ___ Retailer ___ Consumer ___Export In Potato supply chain, government manages only 4% of total marketing channels throughout India.Amongst 4 channels mentioned above, channel 1 and channel 2 are most operational institutional channels in Azadpur mandi (see g. 2) [52].