The demographic characteristics of breastfeeding mothers are shown in Table 1. The mean age was 26.9 years (SD = 0.7) with a mean weight of 56.9kg (SD = 1.3) and a mean height of 152.4cm (SD = 0.6). In terms of body mass index (BMI), 8.6% were chronic energy deficient, and 34.3% are overweight while 12.9% are obese. The occupation of the breastfeeding mothers were mostly housewives (41%) and 28% were working under the category of service/shop/market sales. Educational attainment of most mothers indicates a high school level of education (42%). There was a similar percentage of male and female infants and the mean birth weight for male and female infants are 3112.0g and 3111.0g respectively.
Table 1
Demographic characteristics of breastfeeding mothers (n = 70)
Variables
|
Mean ± SE
|
n = 70
|
Age, (years)
|
26.9 ± 0.7
|
Weight, (kg)
|
56.9 ± 1.3
|
Height, (cm)
|
152.4 ± 0.6
|
BMI, n (%)
|
|
Chronic Energy Deficiency
|
6 (8.57)
|
Normal
|
31 (44.3)
|
Overweight
|
24 (34.3)
|
Obese
|
9 (12.9)
|
Occupation, n (%)
|
|
Clerk
|
1 (1.4)
|
Housewife
|
41 (58.6)
|
Service/shop/market sales
|
28 (40.0)
|
Education Attainment, n (%)
|
|
Elementary level
|
2 (2.9)
|
High school level
|
42 (60.0)
|
College level
|
8 (11.4)
|
Associate degree (2 years college)
|
12 (17.1)
|
Vocational level
|
6 (8.6)
|
The usual nutrient intake of breastfeeding mothers is shown in Table 2. The mean energy intake of 2516.7 ± 63.2 kcal/day was 28.6% higher than the computed Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) of 1957 kcal/day. The mean for macronutrients is as follows: carbohydrates (404g/d); protein (78.4g/d) and total fat (64.5g/d). In terms of the macronutrient intake percent distribution, 37% of the mothers had protein intake below the EAR/AMDR; 3% had a percentage of energy from total fat below the EAR/AMDR while 4% of the mothers exceeded the EAR/AMDR. Furthermore, with respect to the percentage of energy from carbohydrates, 2% of the breastfeeding mothers have intakes below EAR/AMDR while 1% exceeded the EAR/AMDR. High prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intakes was also observed: iron (99%), folate (96%), and Vitamin B6 (63%), Vitamin B12 (46%), riboflavin (39%) and thiamine (22%). Moreover, about 11% of mothers had excessive niacin intake or above the EAR/AMDR. Mean selenium intake (122.6mg) was above the EAR/AMDR (35.3mg).
Table 2
Usual nutrient intake of breastfeeding mothers (n = 70)
|
Dietary Reference Intakes1
|
Mean/Median Intake Percentiles
|
Inadequate/Excessive Reported Intake
|
Nutrients
|
EAR/AMDR
|
UL
|
10th
|
25th
|
Median
|
Mean ± SE
|
75th
|
90th
|
% <EAR/
AMDR
|
% >AMDR
/ >UL
|
Macronutrients
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Energy intake (kcal)
|
1957 (EER) a
|
-
|
1903
|
2152
|
2459
|
2516.7 ± 63.2
|
2815
|
3200
|
13
|
-
|
Total fat (g/d)
|
-
|
-
|
41
|
50
|
62
|
64.5 ± 2.4
|
76
|
91
|
-
|
-
|
Saturated fat (g)
|
-
|
-
|
17
|
19.9
|
23.8
|
25.2 ± 0.9
|
28.9
|
34.9
|
-
|
-
|
Monounsaturated fatty acids (g)
|
-
|
-
|
13.3
|
16.7
|
21.3
|
22.5 ± 0.9
|
27
|
33.3
|
|
|
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g)
|
-
|
-
|
6.7
|
8.1
|
10
|
10.5 ± 0.4
|
12.4
|
15
|
-
|
-
|
Protein (g/d)
|
72
|
-
|
59.9
|
67.5
|
77
|
78.4 ± 1.8
|
87.8
|
98.6
|
37
|
-
|
Carbohydrate (g/d)
|
-
|
-
|
302
|
344
|
397
|
404.2 ± 10.2
|
456
|
517
|
-
|
-
|
Total sugars (g/d)
|
-
|
-
|
37
|
47
|
60
|
63.7 ± 2.9
|
76
|
95
|
-
|
-
|
Dietary fibre (g/d)
|
-
|
-
|
8.1
|
9.3
|
10.8
|
11.1 ± 0.3
|
12.6
|
14.4
|
-
|
-
|
As percentage of total energy
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Total Fat (%)
|
15–30
|
-
|
16.9
|
19.2
|
21.9
|
22.2 ± 0.5
|
24.9
|
27.8
|
3
|
4
|
Protein (%)
|
10–15
|
-
|
11.7
|
12.1
|
12.7
|
12.7 ± 0.1
|
13.2
|
13.7
|
0
|
0
|
Carbohydrate (%)
|
55–75
|
-
|
59
|
62.1
|
65.4
|
65.1 ± 0.6
|
68.4
|
70.9
|
2
|
1
|
Micronutrients
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Vitamin C (mg/d)
|
-
|
-
|
18
|
26
|
37
|
43.5 ± 3.1
|
54
|
76
|
-
|
-
|
Vitamin E (mg)
|
-
|
-
|
2.5
|
3.2
|
4.1
|
4.4 ± 0.2
|
5.3
|
6.7
|
-
|
-
|
B vitamins
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Thiamine (mg/d)
|
1.1
|
-
|
1
|
1.1
|
1.4
|
1.4 ± 0.1
|
1.7
|
2
|
22
|
-
|
Riboflavin (mg/d)
|
1.3
|
-
|
0.9
|
1.1
|
1.4
|
1.6 ± 0.1
|
1.8
|
2.4
|
39
|
-
|
Niacin (mg/d)
|
13.4
|
35
|
18.1
|
20.7
|
24.3
|
26.0 ± 0.9
|
29.3
|
35.8
|
0
|
11
|
Vitamin B6 (mg)
|
1.7
|
100
|
1.2
|
1.4
|
1.6
|
1.6 ± 0.04
|
1.8
|
2.1
|
63
|
0
|
Folate (DFE µg)
|
405
|
1000
|
194
|
231
|
280
|
290.9 ± 9.9
|
339
|
401
|
96
|
0
|
Vitamin B12 (mg)
|
2.4
|
-
|
1.7
|
2
|
2.5
|
2.7 ± 0.1
|
3.1
|
3.8
|
46
|
-
|
Bone-related nutrients
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Calcium (mg/d)
|
-
|
-
|
343
|
441
|
585
|
644.7 ± 34.8
|
781
|
1018
|
-
|
-
|
Phosphorus (mg/d)
|
580
|
4000
|
883
|
1016
|
1182
|
1220.5 ± 35.4
|
1382
|
1604
|
< 1
|
0
|
Magnesium (mg)
|
-
|
-
|
157
|
182
|
214
|
222.2 ± 6.8
|
254
|
297
|
-
|
-
|
Vitamin D (mg)
|
-
|
-
|
1.9
|
2.5
|
3.3
|
3.5 ± 0.2
|
4.3
|
5.4
|
-
|
-
|
Other micronutrients
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Vitamin A (µg RE/d)
|
-
|
-
|
364
|
466
|
614
|
695.2 ± 42.4
|
827
|
1111
|
-
|
-
|
Iron (mg/d)
|
28.2
|
45
|
8.8
|
9.9
|
11.4
|
11.9 ± 0.9
|
13.3
|
15.5
|
99
|
0
|
Zinc (mg)
|
-
|
-
|
6.3
|
7.2
|
8.3
|
8.5 ± 0.2
|
9.7
|
11.1
|
-
|
-
|
Sodium (mg/d)
|
-
|
-
|
1135
|
1349
|
1628
|
1684.7 ± 56.1
|
1958
|
2306
|
-
|
-
|
Potassium (mg)
|
|
|
1150
|
1309
|
1513
|
1550.2 ± 40.5
|
1751
|
1999
|
-
|
-
|
Selenium (mg)
|
35.3
|
400
|
98
|
108
|
121
|
122.6 ± 2.4
|
135
|
149
|
-
|
-
|
1 PDRI, Philippine Dietary Reference Intakes 2015. EAR, estimated average requirements. AMDR, acceptable macro-nutriment distribution range. UL, tolerable upper intake level |
a energy intake cutoffs based on Estimated Energy Requirement (IOM methods) assume their physical activity was low active |
Rice (94.3%), fats and oils (74.3%), sweetened beverages (68.6%), bread (65.7%), and fish & shellfish (45.7%) were the top-5 most consumed foods of breastfeeding mothers as seen in Fig. 1. Dark green leafy vegetables were the least consumed food group of breastfeeding mothers (22.9%).
As seen in Fig. 2, rice, sweetened beverages, bread, powdered milk, and pork were the top-5 sources of macronutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, and fats. Briefly, rice is the major source of carbohydrate (60.4%), protein (28.6%), thiamine (21.8%), iron (26.4%), and zinc (28.5%), a second source of calcium and third source of riboflavin. Pork was the first source of total fat (27.1%), a second source of zinc (13.7%), and the third source of thiamine (12.7%). Sweetened beverages were the first source of vitamin C (35.5%), the second source of thiamine (16.7%), zinc (14.0%), riboflavin (12.5%), and third source of vitamin A (10.9%) as well as carbohydrate (6.8%). Other food groups were consumed by percentages ranging from 15.7–38.6% and contributed too little in the overall nutrient intakes.
Top 5 food sources of thiamine from foods consumed by breastfeeding mothers are from rice (21.8%), Sweetened Beverages (16.7%), Chocolate Beverages (16.5%), Pork (12.7%) and Bread (10.7%) as seen in Fig. 3. It can also be noted that top food sources for Vitamin C come mainly from sweetened beverages (35.5%) and Fresh fruit. On the other hand, top food sources for riboflavin and vitamin A are from powdered milk with 33.2% and 34.1% consumption respectively.
As seen in Fig. 4, top food sources of calcium from breastfeeding mothers come mainly from powdered milk (38.8%), rice (12.7%), and sweetened beverages (8.9%). While food sources of iron come mainly from rice (26.4%) and bread (17.7%), food sources for zinc mainly come from rice (28.5%), sweetened beverages (14.0%), and pork (13.7%).