Table 1 shows the demography of individuals in groups 1 and 2 and the control group. There were no differences in mean child age, the mean number of children, or the mother’s age group (31-60 y) between the groups. There was no difference between the diabetes group and the control group in terms of education, but mothers in the control group were employed significantly more often than those in the diabetes group. On the other hand, mothers in the ASD group were significantly less educated and less employed in comparison to the TD-control group. Results from multiple logistic regression analysis showed that maternal education and employment are significant predictors(p=0.001).
Table 1. Mother's age, mother’s education and mother’s employment in the ASD, diabetes and control groups.
Variable
|
ASD
group
n
|
%
|
Diabetes group
n
|
%
|
Control
group
n
|
%
|
P value
|
|
Child age (mean)
|
8.26
|
9.8309
|
8.6474
|
0.571
|
.571
|
Number of children (mean)
|
3.1
|
3.09
|
2.77
|
0.071
|
.071
|
Mother’s age (y)
|
|
|
.382
|
|
|
20-30
|
34
|
27
|
8
|
18.6
|
34
|
29.3
|
|
|
|
31-60
|
92
|
73
|
35
|
81.4
|
82
|
70.7
|
|
|
Mother’s education
|
|
|
.007
|
|
|
Reading and writing
|
6
|
4.8
|
1
|
2.3
|
0
|
.00
|
|
|
|
Primary/Middle school
|
16
|
12.7
|
1
|
2.3
|
3
|
2.6
|
|
|
|
High school
|
42
|
33.3
|
19
|
44.2
|
42
|
36.2
|
|
|
|
University
|
62
|
49.2
|
22
|
51.2
|
71
|
61.2
|
|
|
Mother’s employment
|
|
|
.000
|
|
|
Working
|
32
|
25.4
|
15
|
34.9
|
68
|
58.6
|
|
|
|
Homemaker
|
74
|
58.8
|
23
|
53.5
|
44
|
38.0
|
|
|
|
Retired
|
19
|
15.1
|
5
|
11.6
|
4
|
3.4
|
|
|
|
Student
|
1
|
0.9
|
0
|
.00
|
0
|
.00
|
|
|
Table 2 shows the mean DASS-21 and PSS-14 scores among the diabetes group, group 2 and control group. Total DASS-21 scores were higher in group 2 than in the community controls (41.58 vs 29.81; P=0.019). The DASS-21 subscale mean scores for depression and stress were higher in group 2 than in the control group, but the difference did not reach significance. The PSS-14 mean scores were significantly higher in group 2 than in the control group (28.63 vs 25.87; P=0.003)
Table 2. DASS-21 and PSS-14 mean scores between the diabetes group and control group.
Instrument
|
Diabetes group mean score
N=43
|
Control group mean score
N=116
|
P value
|
Odds ratio
|
95% Confidence interval
|
DASS-21 total
|
41.58
|
29.81
|
0.019
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
10.81
|
9.34
|
0.395
|
1.148
|
0.568
|
2.318
|
|
Anxiety
|
10.91
|
7.81
|
0.053
|
2.228
|
1.085
|
4.573
|
|
Stress
|
14.05
|
12.66
|
0.404
|
1.324
|
0.645
|
2.717
|
PSS-14
|
28.63
|
25.87
|
0.003
|
|
|
|
Table 3 shows the mean DASS-21 and PSS-14 scores for the mothers of children with ASD (group 1) and diabetes (group 2). On the DASS-21, ASD group scores were higher for depression and stress than those for the diabetes group, while the diabetes group scored higher for anxiety symptoms (OR=1.742, 95% CI=0.856-3.444, P=0.642), although this difference did not reach a significant level. On the PSS-14, the diabetes group scored higher on the stress measure than the ASD group, but again, the difference was not significant (28.63 vs 27.61; P=0.245). The DASS-21 total scores of all measures were higher for group 2 (41.58) than for group 1 (37.86), but the difference did not reach significance.
Table 3. DASS-21 and PSS-14 mean scores between the diabetes group and ASD group.
Instrument
|
ASD
group
mean score
N=126
|
Diabetes group mean score
N=43
|
P value
|
Odds ratio
|
95% Confidence interval
|
DASS-21 total
|
37.86
|
41.58
|
0.460
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
12.43
|
10.81
|
0.356
|
0.652
|
0.325
|
1.307
|
|
Anxiety
|
10.16
|
10.91
|
0.642
|
1.742
|
0.856
|
3.544
|
|
Stress
|
15.27
|
14.05
|
0.473
|
1.110
|
0.544
|
2.267
|
PSS-14
|
27.61
|
28.63
|
0.245
|
|
|
|
Table 4 shows the mean scores among the 3 groups for the DASS-21 and PSS-14.
Table 4. DASS-21 and PSS-14 mean scores among the ASD group, diabetes group and control group.
Instrument
|
ASD group
mean score
N=126
|
Diabetes group mean score
N=43
|
Control group
mean score
N=116
|
P value
|
DASS-21 total
|
37.86
|
41.58
|
29.81
|
0.015
|
|
Depression
|
12.43
|
11.49
|
9.34
|
0.042
|
|
Anxiety
|
10.16
|
12.70
|
7.81
|
0.007
|
|
Stress
|
15.27
|
17.40
|
12.66
|
0.030
|
PSS-14
|
27.61
|
28.81
|
25.87
|
0.002
|
The DASS total scores were significantly higher in group 2 and group 1 than in the control group (41.58, 37.86, 29.81, respectively, p=0.015). Depressive symptoms were more prevalent in group 1 than in group 2 and the control group (p=0.042), while anxiety and stress symptoms were higher in group 2 than in group 1 and the control group (p=0.007 and 0.030, respectively). On the PSS-14, group 2 scored 28.81, which was more than group 1 with 27.61 and the control group with 25.87 (P=0.002).
Table 5 shows the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and stress in group 1, group 2, and the control group. The prevalence of depression was higher in group 1 than in group 2 and the control group (57.1, 46.5, and 43.1, respectively) (p=0.046). Anxiety and stress were more prevalent in group 2 than in group 1 and the control group (p=0.034 and p=0.009, respectively).
Table 5. Reported distress based on DASS-21 and PSS-14 scores among mothers of all groups.
Instrument
|
ASD group
n=126
|
Diabetes group
n=43
|
Control group
n=116
|
P-value
|
|
N
|
%
|
N
|
%
|
N
|
%
|
|
Dass-21
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Depression
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
72
|
57.1
|
20
|
46.5
|
50
|
43.1
|
0.046
|
No
|
54
|
42.9
|
23
|
53.5
|
66
|
56.9
|
|
Anxiety
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
62
|
49.2
|
27
|
62.8
|
50
|
43.1
|
0.034
|
No
|
64
|
50.8
|
16
|
37.2
|
66
|
56.9
|
|
Stress
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
76
|
60.3
|
27
|
62.8
|
65
|
56
|
0.009
|
No
Pss-14
|
50
27.61
|
36.7
|
16
|
37.2
28.63
|
51
|
44
25.87
|
0.004
|
___________________________________________________________________________