The model of selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) is a metatheory referring to successful development [1]. The SOC model describes three strategies of life-management: selection, optimization, and compensation, and two categories have been distinguished for selection: elective selection and loss-based selection [2]. All these strategies are used for life-management and adjusting the course of development by initiating, maintaining and terminating actions related to the achievement of goals [1, 2, 3]. Both aspects of selection relate to goal setting. Elective selection aims at achieving desired states in specific areas of functioning. Thus, this strategy sets the direction for development. Loss-based selection occurs in a situation of real or expected loss (or reduction) of resources which requires the adjustment of the posed goals. Optimization and compensation strategies relate to achieving goals. Which of the two strategies will be used depends on the availability of resources. Optimization refers to the acquisition and investment of internal and external resources that are essential for the achievement of selected goals. Finally, compensation is a strategy involving the use of alternative resources and the choice of alternative methods to achieve a given goal, if the resources and methods used so far are temporarily or permanently unavailable [2].
The use of SOC strategies shows developmental dynamics, however, they are derived from cross-sectional studies. The developmental peak of SOC occurs in middle adulthood, when the tendency to use most of SOC strategies is highest, compared to early and late adulthood. Only the use of elective selection increases steadily with age, from early to late adulthood. In addition, persons in middle adulthood show the highest consistency for SOC components [2]. The decline in the use three of the SOC strategies between middle and late adulthood is associated with the depletion of resources. However, older adults can compensate for this by more efficient use of these strategies [4, 5]. Ageing is also associated with the shift of motivation, from striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses [6, 7]. For this reason, loss-related strategies, such as compensation, can be more often used by older persons than younger ones [4]. There is a lack of research that examines developmental changes in the SOC strategies usage over the life span. If longitudinal studies on SOC strategies are conducted, they cover at most several months or several years of time. Moreover, these studies usually do not focus on developmental changes in SOC strategies themselves, but on the association of SOC strategies use with other variables which changes are examined [e.g. 8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
An instrument measuring strategies described by the SOC model is the SOC-Questionnaire (Selection, Optimization, and Compensation Questionnaire), which was originally created in the German language, and translated into English by its authors [13]. So far, in addition to the original versions, four versions of the SOC-Questionnaire have been created. In chronological order these are: Chinese [14], Swedish [15], Japanese [16] and Spanish [17] versions.
SOC strategies are treated as adaptive resources enabling effective life management and therefore the use of these strategies is related to successful development in many areas and in various age groups [e.g. 7, 11, 18, 19, 20, 21].
In particular, a positive link of the SOC strategies use with well-being, life satisfaction and positive affectivity, and negative link with depressive tendencies have been demonstrated in many contexts, including: successful ageing and adaptation to age-associated losses and health problems [e.g. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28], health behaviours, coping with stress and illness [e.g. 11, 20, 21, 29], occupational well-being and work-life balance [e.g. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34], and positive youth development – PYD [8, 35, 36, 37]. A negative link of the use of SOC strategies with risky and problematic behaviour has also been repeatedly reported, although studies on this topic were basically only conducted among adolescents and young adults [8, 38, 39].
So far, there has been no study on the association of the SOC strategy use with impulsivity, although there are premises for such association. Currently, impulsivity is understood as a multi-faceted construct [40, 41]. While some aspects of impulsivity are related to ongoing behaviour (motor/behavioural impulsivity/disinhibition/premature responding), others address self-control in a more global sense (cognitive impulsivity), including planning deficits (non-planning, decrease in orientation toward future) and lack of persistence (problems with delay of gratification, termination of action before the goal is reached) [42, 43, 44]. According to five-factor model, impulsivity encompasses five dimensions: lack of premeditation, lack of perseverance, negative and positive urgency, and sensation seeking [41]. Lack of premeditation denotes the tendency to not reflect on the consequences of actions. Lack of perseverance is associated with self-discipline and refers to an individual's poor ability to remain focused on a task that may be long, boring or difficult. Urgency indicates the tendency to experience strong impulses and act rashly under conditions of intense mood: negative (negative urgency) or positive (positive urgency). Sensation seeking refers to the tendency to seek out novel and thrilling experiences, including openness to taking risky activities [41, 45, 46, 47].
Considering the fact that the SOC model is treated as the conceptualisation of intentional self-regulation [48, 49] and as the life-span control model [50], it can be presumed that target-oriented SOC strategies are negatively associated with impulsivity. Particularly this would apply to the aspects of planning for action (lack of premeditation) and persistence in goals pursuit (lack of perseverance). Moreover, impulsivity is known to be one of the most important predictors for risky behaviour and depression [40, 51, 52, 53], both negatively related to SOC.
Although most studies on impulsivity are focused on adolescence and early adulthood [e.g. 52, 53, 54, 55], impulsivity has also been shown to be important for various aspects of individuals' functioning in later developmental stages, including late adulthood. At the same time, the role of impulsivity may change during a life course [e.g. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60].
The purpose of presented study was to assess and compare the use of SOC strategies in three age groups: early, middle and late adulthood, and to evaluate the relationship between the SOC strategies use with well-being and impulsivity, also in these age groups. A cross-sectional research model was adopted. The study employed the newly developed Polish version of the SOC Questionnaire (SOC48-PL), which reliability is also presented in the article.