Table 1
Details of Landsat images used in the study.
City
|
Path/Row
|
Data
|
City
|
Path/Row
|
Data
|
Kolkata
|
138/044
|
Landsat 7
|
24 February 2002
22 February 2007
20 February 2012
|
Jaipur
|
147/041
|
Landsat 7
|
8 December 2002
22 December 2007
19 December 2012
|
Landsat 8
|
24 January 2017
|
Landsat 8
|
25 December 2017
|
Visakhapatnam
|
141/048
|
Landsat 7
|
11 December 2001
13 January 2008
25 December 2012
|
Luck now
|
144/041
|
Landsat 7
|
2 February 2002
31 January 2007
29 January 2012
|
Landsat 8
|
15 December 2017
|
Landsat 8
|
3 February 2017
|
Mumbai
|
148/047
|
Landsat 7
|
15 December 2002
14 January 2008
16 December 2012
|
Nagpur
|
144/045
|
Landsat 7
|
19 December 2002
17 December 2007
15 January 2013
|
Landsat 8
|
1 January 2018
|
Landsat 8
|
5 January 2018
|
Kochi
|
144/053
|
Landsat 7
|
3 December 2002
17 December 2007
31 January 2013
|
Hyderabad
|
144/048
|
Landsat 7
|
17 January 2002
15 January 2007
13 January 2012
|
Landsat 8
|
6 February 2018
|
Landsat 8
|
2 January 2017
|
Delhi
|
146/040
|
Landsat 7
|
17 December 2002
31 December 2007
13 January 2013
|
Bengaluru
|
144/051
|
Landsat 7
|
3 December 2002
2 January 2008
15 January 2013
|
Landsat 8
|
2 December 2017
|
Landsat 8
|
5 January 2018
|
Chandigarh
|
147/39
|
Landsat 7
|
18 December 2000
16 December 2005
14 December 2010
|
|
|
|
|
Landsat 8
|
30 December 2013
28 December 2018
|
|
|
|
|
Table 2
Typical Parameters for different surface cover types (Kato and Yamaguchi, 2005, 2007; Kato et al., 2008; Nishida et al., 2003).
Surface cover type
|
Zom
|
Kβ-1 = ln (Zom/Zoh)
|
Rsmin
|
Water Bodies
|
0.00003
|
-1
|
0
|
Bare/Dry Land
|
0.001
|
4
|
2500
|
Built up Area
|
0.5
|
7
|
2500
|
Crop/Grass Land
|
0.05
|
5.1
|
1000
|
Dense Vegetation
|
0.5
|
7
|
180
|
Table 3
Changes in the urban energy balance (UEB) components during the study period over the built up area, dry lands and vegetated areas of the study regions.
LULC classes
|
Change in UEB components in Wm-2
|
LULC classes
|
Change in UEB components in Wm-2
|
∆Q*
|
∆QH
|
∆QE
|
∆Q*
|
∆QH
|
∆QE
|
Kolkata
|
Jaipur
|
Dry Land
|
47.1
|
14.1
|
– 3.2
|
Dry Land
|
34.0
|
16.1
|
– 8.9
|
Built up Area
|
57.7
|
24.4
|
– 4.0
|
Built up Area
|
35.2
|
13.5
|
– 10.4
|
Vegetation
|
44.5
|
4.3
|
– 1.6
|
Vegetation
|
41.3
|
10.2
|
– 13.0
|
Visakhapatnam
|
Lucknow
|
Dry Land
|
19.7
|
18.6
|
– 7.7
|
Dry Land
|
60.2
|
15.0
|
– 5.1
|
Built up Area
|
22.0
|
18.8
|
– 10.3
|
Built up Area
|
56.4
|
15.3
|
–7.0
|
Vegetation
|
21.5
|
16.3
|
– 13.7
|
Vegetation
|
47.6
|
13.6
|
– 8.3
|
Mumbai
|
Nagpur
|
Dry Land
|
41.5
|
19.9
|
– 13.7
|
Dry Land
|
29.0
|
20.1
|
– 6.2
|
Built up Area
|
46.1
|
23.0
|
– 13.5
|
Built up Area
|
31.5
|
13.9
|
– 7.0
|
Vegetation
|
49.3
|
16.6
|
– 9.7
|
Vegetation
|
39.9
|
15.3
|
– 13.1
|
Kochi
|
Hyderabad
|
Dry Land
|
19.5
|
14.1
|
– 10.8
|
Dry Land
|
18.8
|
12.6
|
– 11.7
|
Built up Area
|
15.9
|
19.5
|
– 5.2
|
Built up Area
|
15.0
|
11.6
|
– 7.2
|
Vegetation
|
20.8
|
9.5
|
– 12.0
|
Vegetation
|
11.6
|
11.8
|
– 8.5
|
Delhi
|
Bengaluru
|
Dry Land
|
46.0
|
39.7
|
– 8.3
|
Dry Land
|
14.5
|
17.0
|
– 3.7
|
Built up Area
|
54.2
|
28.2
|
– 5.6
|
Built up Area
|
11.7
|
18.3
|
– 10.3
|
Vegetation
|
54.6
|
15.2
|
– 9.0
|
Vegetation
|
8.4
|
18.7
|
– 17.0
|
Chandigarh
|
|
Dry Land
|
37.8
|
14.5
|
– 9.3
|
|
Built up Area
|
31.9
|
10.4
|
– 15.6
|
|
Vegetation
|
35.0
|
9.9
|
– 11.8
|
|
Table 4
Comparison of the land surface temperature (LST) ranges with the ranges of the sensible heat flux (SHF) and the latent heat flux (LHF) for Kolkata and Visakhapatnam.
Year
|
KOLKATA
|
Year
|
VISAKHAPATNAM
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
2001
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
BA
|
25.8–31.7
|
95.1–125.2
|
2.7 – 25
|
BA
|
27.1–32.2
|
70.1 – 100
|
25.1 – 55
|
DL
|
29.3–33.4
|
75.1–105
|
20.1 – 45
|
DL
|
30.8–34.4
|
90.1 – 135.4
|
5.1 – 30
|
VEG
|
24.2–25.7
|
15.1 – 75
|
45.1 – 105
|
VEG
|
24.7–27.0
|
15.1 – 70
|
55.1 – 120
|
2007
|
|
|
|
2008
|
|
|
|
BA
|
26.2–32.0
|
100.1–138.4
|
3.8 - 30
|
BA
|
27.3–33.3
|
80.1 – 110
|
20.1 – 50
|
DL
|
29.4–34.3
|
75.1 – 110
|
20.1 – 45
|
DL
|
31.1–35.0
|
100.1 – 146.1
|
3.4 – 25
|
VEG
|
23.9–26.1
|
15.1 – 75
|
45.1 – 100
|
VEG
|
25.4–27.2
|
15.1 – 80
|
50.1 – 115
|
2012
|
|
|
|
2012
|
|
|
|
BA
|
26.8–32.3
|
110.1–166.3
|
1.9 - 30
|
BA
|
26.7–33.3
|
85.1 – 115
|
20.1 – 45
|
DL
|
29.8–35.5
|
85.1 – 120
|
25.1 – 45
|
DL
|
30.8–35.3
|
105.1 – 164.5
|
2.9 – 25
|
VEG
|
23.7–26.7
|
20.1 – 85
|
45.1 – 100
|
VEG
|
25.4–26.6
|
20.1 – 85
|
45.1 – 115
|
2017
|
|
|
|
2017
|
|
|
|
BA
|
25.5–32.3
|
110.1–154.2
|
3.4 - 25
|
BA
|
26.6–33.5
|
90.1 – 115
|
15.1 – 45
|
DL
|
29.9–34.5
|
85.1 – 120
|
20.1 – 40
|
DL
|
31.3–35.9
|
110.1 – 156.2
|
2.1 – 20
|
VEG
|
22.9–25.4
|
20.1 – 85
|
40.1 – 95
|
VEG
|
24.7–26.5
|
25.1 – 90
|
45.1 – 105
|
Table 5
Comparison of the land surface temperature (LST) ranges with the ranges of the sensible heat flux (SHF) and the latent heat flux (LHF) for Mumbai and Kochi.
Year
|
MUMBAI
|
Year
|
KOCHI
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
BA
|
31.1–37.0
|
80.1 – 130
|
55.1 – 95
|
BA
|
25.3–31.7
|
90.1 – 132.9
|
3.4 – 30
|
DL
|
35.3–39.2
|
120.1–158.3
|
21.4 – 60
|
DL
|
29.3–32.3
|
70.1 – 100
|
25.1 – 60
|
VEG
|
27.4–31.0
|
15.1 – 80
|
95.1 – 160
|
VEG
|
23.9–25.2
|
10.1 – 70
|
60.1 – 120
|
2008
|
|
|
|
2007
|
|
|
|
BA
|
29.9–36.4
|
85.1 – 130
|
50.1 – 85
|
BA
|
26.5–32.2
|
100.1 – 139.9
|
1.6 – 30
|
DL
|
34.5–38.5
|
120.1–163.7
|
18.7 – 55
|
DL
|
29.3–34.6
|
75.1 – 110
|
25.1 – 55
|
VEG
|
26.6–29.8
|
20.1 – 85
|
85.1 – 155
|
VEG
|
25.1–26.4
|
15.1 – 75
|
55.1 – 120
|
2012
|
|
|
|
2013
|
|
|
|
BA
|
30.3–37.5
|
90.1 – 135
|
40.1 – 80
|
BA
|
27.1–33.2
|
105.1 – 145.4
|
2.7 – 25
|
DL
|
35.5–39.6
|
125.1–168.4
|
6.7 – 45
|
DL
|
31.6–35.2
|
80.1 – 115
|
20.1 – 50
|
VEG
|
27.3–30.2
|
20.1 – 90
|
80.1 – 150
|
VEG
|
25.3–27.0
|
20.1 – 80
|
50.1 – 115
|
2018
|
|
|
|
2018
|
|
|
|
BA
|
29.5–31.7
|
90.1 – 135
|
35.1 – 80
|
BA
|
29.6–36.7
|
110.1 – 154.6
|
5.7 – 20
|
DL
|
35.0–37.1
|
140.1–180.7
|
12.1 – 40
|
DL
|
34.5–38.3
|
80.1 – 120
|
15.1 – 45
|
VEG
|
26.3–29.4
|
25.1 – 100
|
80.1 – 160
|
VEG
|
27.2–29.3
|
15.1 – 80
|
45.1 – 110
|
Table 6
Comparison of the land surface temperature (LST) ranges with the ranges of the sensible heat flux (SHF) and the latent heat flux (LHF) for Delhi and Jaipur.
Year
|
DELHI
|
Year
|
JAIPUR
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
BA
|
19.4–24.2
|
65.1 – 105
|
25.1 – 50
|
BA
|
23.3–28.5
|
85.1 – 120
|
25.1 – 55
|
DL
|
22.8–25.0
|
95.1 – 138.3
|
12.4 – 35
|
DL
|
27.0–30.3
|
110.1 – 176.6
|
8.1 – 30
|
VEG
|
17.8–19.3
|
10.1 – 65
|
50.1 – 110
|
VEG
|
21.3–23.2
|
20.1 – 85
|
55.1 – 125
|
2007
|
|
|
|
2007
|
|
|
|
BA
|
18.1–23.6
|
80.1 – 120
|
20.1 – 40
|
BA
|
24.9–30.6
|
90.1 – 130
|
20.1 – 55
|
DL
|
21.8–24.8
|
110.1–146.3
|
7.6 – 25
|
DL
|
28.3–32.4
|
120.1 – 183.1
|
4.3 – 25
|
VEG
|
16.7–18.0
|
15.1 – 80
|
40.1 – 105
|
VEG
|
22.5–24.8
|
25.1 – 90
|
55.1 – 120
|
2013
|
|
|
|
2012
|
|
|
|
BA
|
18.5–23.8
|
85.1 – 135
|
25.1 – 40
|
BA
|
24.8–31.0
|
95.1 – 130
|
15.1 – 50
|
DL
|
21.9–25.4
|
125.1–161.4
|
10.7 – 30
|
DL
|
28.8–33.2
|
120.1 – 186.3
|
3.4 – 20
|
VEG
|
16.7–18.4
|
20.1 - 85
|
40.1 – 100
|
VEG
|
22.8–24.7
|
25.1 – 95
|
50.1 – 115
|
2017
|
|
|
|
2017
|
|
|
|
BA
|
19.8–25.5
|
90.1 – 140
|
20.1 – 40
|
BA
|
25.0–31.8
|
100.1 – 135
|
15.1 – 45
|
DL
|
23.5–27.3
|
130.1–179.3
|
7.4 – 25
|
DL
|
29.7–35.3
|
125.1 – 197.2
|
5.4 – 20
|
VEG
|
17.8–19.7
|
20.1 – 90
|
40.1 – 95
|
VEG
|
22.9–24.9
|
25.1 – 100
|
45.1 – 115
|
Table 7
Comparison of the land surface temperature (LST) ranges with the ranges of the sensible heat flux (SHF) and the latent heat flux (LHF) for Chandigarh.
Year
|
CHANDIGARH
|
2000
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
BA
|
17.1 – 21.7
|
80.1 – 120
|
25.1 – 55
|
DL
|
20.2 – 23.2
|
110.1 – 148.9
|
4.3 – 30
|
VEG
|
15.4 – 17.0
|
20.1 – 80
|
55.1 – 115
|
2005
|
|
|
|
BA
|
17.3 – 22.2
|
85.1 – 125
|
20.1 – 50
|
DL
|
20.5 – 23.8
|
115.1 – 155.5
|
3.1 – 25
|
VEG
|
15.5 – 17.2
|
20.1 – 85
|
50.1 – 115
|
2010
|
|
|
|
BA
|
17.5 – 22.6
|
90.1 – 130
|
20.1 – 45
|
DL
|
20.9 – 24.2
|
120.1 – 159.2
|
1.4 – 25
|
VEG
|
15.3 – 17.4
|
20.1 – 90
|
45.1 – 110
|
2013
|
|
|
|
BA
|
14.4 – 20.2
|
90.1 – 135
|
15.1 – 45
|
DL
|
18.5 – 22.0
|
125.1 – 164.3
|
2.4 – 20
|
VEG
|
13.6 – 14.3
|
25.1 – 90
|
45.1 – 105
|
2018
|
|
|
|
BA
|
15.5 – 21.7
|
95.1 – 135
|
15.1 – 40
|
DL
|
19.7 – 22.8
|
125.1 – 168.5
|
2.2 – 20
|
VEG
|
14.3 – 15.4
|
25.1 – 95
|
40.1 – 100
|
Table 8
Comparison of the land surface temperature (LST) ranges with the ranges of the sensible heat flux (SHF) and the latent heat flux (LHF) for Lucknow and Nagpur.
Year
|
LUCKNOW
|
Year
|
NAGPUR
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
BA
|
20.1–24.4
|
85.1 – 125
|
30.1 - 60
|
BA
|
24.5–31.8
|
65.1 – 105
|
20.1 – 45
|
DL
|
23.1–26.5
|
115.1 – 167.2
|
1.2 – 35
|
DL
|
28.5–33.7
|
95.1 – 148.2
|
3.4 – 25
|
VEG
|
18.5–20.0
|
20.1 – 85
|
60.1 – 125
|
VEG
|
22.2–24.4
|
10.1 – 65
|
45.1 – 95
|
2007
|
|
|
|
2007
|
|
|
|
BA
|
21.9–27.1
|
90.1 – 130
|
25.1 – 60
|
BA
|
24.4–31.6
|
65.1 – 110
|
20.1 – 40
|
DL
|
25.2–28.7
|
120.1 – 178.1
|
1.7 – 30
|
DL
|
28.3–33.3
|
100.1 – 147.3
|
1.2 – 25
|
VEG
|
20.6–21.8
|
25.1 – 90
|
60.1 – 120
|
VEG
|
21.4–24.3
|
15.1 – 70
|
40.1 – 90
|
2012
|
|
|
|
2013
|
|
|
|
BA
|
19.4–24.6
|
95.1 – 135
|
20.1 – 55
|
BA
|
24.5–32.3
|
75.1 – 115
|
20.1 – 35
|
DL
|
22.8–26.2
|
125.1 – 169.2
|
2.3 – 25
|
DL
|
29.9–34.8
|
105.1 – 155.9
|
2.9 – 25
|
VEG
|
17.8–19.3
|
30.1 - 95
|
55.1 – 120
|
VEG
|
22.5–24.4
|
15.1 – 75
|
35.1 – 85
|
2017
|
|
|
|
2018
|
|
|
|
BA
|
19.6–25.4
|
95.1 – 140
|
15.1 – 55
|
BA
|
25.2–32.9
|
80.1 – 120
|
15.1 – 35
|
DL
|
23.2–27.3
|
130.1 – 184.9
|
4.9 – 20
|
DL
|
30.4–35.5
|
110.1 – 166.2
|
1.9 – 20
|
VEG
|
18.0–19.5
|
30.1 – 95
|
55.1 – 115
|
VEG
|
22.4–25.1
|
25.1 – 80
|
35.1 – 80
|
Table 9
Comparison of the land surface temperature (LST) ranges with the ranges of the sensible heat flux (SHF) and the latent heat flux (LHF) for Hyderabad and Bengaluru.
Year
|
HYDERABAD
|
Year
|
BENGALURU
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
2002
|
LST (˚C)
|
SHF (Wm-2)
|
LHF (Wm-2)
|
BA
|
26.8–33.5
|
115.1 – 183.3
|
5.5 – 40
|
BA
|
27.7–33.8
|
95.1 – 130
|
20.1 – 55
|
DL
|
31.6–35.8
|
85.1 – 125
|
30.1 – 70
|
DL
|
31.8–35.6
|
120.1 – 177.5
|
2.1 – 25
|
VEG
|
24.7–26.7
|
15.1 – 85
|
70.1 – 135
|
VEG
|
25.5–27.6
|
20.1 – 95
|
55.1 – 120
|
2007
|
|
|
|
2008
|
|
|
|
BA
|
25.5–32.2
|
120.1 – 190.5
|
6.3 – 35
|
BA
|
27.6–33.9
|
100.1 – 140
|
15.1 – 50
|
DL
|
29.9–35.0
|
90.1 – 130
|
25.1 – 70
|
DL
|
31.9–36.1
|
130.1 – 184.7
|
3.1 – 20
|
VEG
|
22.6–25.4
|
20.1 – 90
|
70.1 – 130
|
VEG
|
25.4–27.5
|
25.1 – 100
|
50.1 – 120
|
2012
|
|
|
|
2013
|
|
|
|
BA
|
25.1–33.2
|
125.1 – 187.7
|
2.8 – 30
|
BA
|
27.8–34.4
|
110.1 – 150
|
15.1 – 45
|
DL
|
30.9–35.2
|
95.1 – 135
|
25.1 – 65
|
DL
|
32.2–36.8
|
140.1 – 192.5
|
6.5 – 20
|
VEG
|
22.9–25.0
|
20.1 – 95
|
65.1 – 125
|
VEG
|
25.7–27.7
|
30.1 – 110
|
45.1 – 110
|
2017
|
|
|
|
2018
|
|
|
|
BA
|
25.7–33.3
|
130.1 – 192.7
|
3.6 – 25
|
BA
|
28.3–35.2
|
115.1 – 150
|
15.1 – 40
|
DL
|
30.9–36.1
|
100.1 – 140
|
20.1 – 60
|
DL
|
32.9–37.7
|
140.1 – 185.2
|
1.4 – 20
|
VEG
|
22.5–25.6
|
25.1 – 100
|
60.1 – 120
|
VEG
|
26.3–28.2
|
35.1 – 115
|
40.1 – 105
|
Table 10
Ratios of sensible heat flux (QH), latent heat flux (QE) and residual heat flux (QR) to the net radiation flux (Q*) over the built up area of the study regions.
Kolkata
|
Jaipur
|
Observation period
|
QH/Q*
|
QE/Q*
|
QR/Q*
|
Observation period
|
QH/Q*
|
QE/Q*
|
QR/Q*
|
24 February 2002
|
0.24
|
0.030
|
0.73
|
8 December 2002
|
0.26
|
0.110
|
0.61
|
22 February 2007
|
0.25
|
0.029
|
0.73
|
22 December 2007
|
0.27
|
0.100
|
0.62
|
20 February 2012
|
0.28
|
0.023
|
0.71
|
19 December 2012
|
0.28
|
0.086
|
0.62
|
24 January 2017
|
0.26
|
0.019
|
0.72
|
25 December 2017
|
0.27
|
0.075
|
0.64
|
Visakhapatnam
|
Lucknow
|
11 December 2001
|
0.19
|
0.087
|
0.71
|
2 February 2002
|
0.25
|
0.110
|
0.72
|
13 January 2008
|
0.20
|
0.073
|
0.69
|
31 January 2007
|
0.25
|
0.100
|
0.71
|
25 December 2012
|
0.22
|
0.071
|
0.70
|
29 January 2012
|
0.25
|
0.088
|
0.68
|
15 December 2017
|
0.22
|
0.061
|
0.67
|
3 February 2017
|
0.26
|
0.083
|
0.70
|
Mumbai
|
Nagpur
|
15 December 2002
|
0.29
|
0.110
|
0.65
|
19 December 2002
|
0.22
|
0.086
|
0.66
|
14 January 2008
|
0.29
|
0.100
|
0.64
|
17 December 2007
|
0.23
|
0.080
|
0.74
|
16 December 2012
|
0.31
|
0.100
|
0.66
|
15 January 2013
|
0.23
|
0.068
|
0.72
|
1 January 2018
|
0.31
|
0.100
|
0.63
|
5 January 2018
|
0.24
|
0.062
|
0.73
|
Kochi
|
Hyderabad
|
3 December 2002
|
0.29
|
0.042
|
0.71
|
17 January 2002
|
0.25
|
0.049
|
0.74
|
17 December 2007
|
0.31
|
0.038
|
0.74
|
15 January 2007
|
0.26
|
0.046
|
0.80
|
31 January 2013
|
0.31
|
0.032
|
0.72
|
13 January 2012
|
0.26
|
0.039
|
0.78
|
6 February 2018
|
0.33
|
0.028
|
0.75
|
2 January 2017
|
0.27
|
0.033
|
0.79
|
Delhi
|
Bengaluru
|
17 December 2002
|
0.25
|
0.110
|
0.76
|
3 December 2002
|
0.24
|
0.082
|
0.65
|
31 December 2007
|
0.28
|
0.096
|
0.77
|
2 January 2008
|
0.24
|
0.073
|
0.65
|
13 January 2013
|
0.29
|
0.088
|
0.71
|
15 January 2013
|
0.26
|
0.067
|
0.65
|
2 December 2017
|
0.29
|
0.084
|
0.74
|
5 January 2018
|
0.27
|
0.060
|
0.64
|
Chandigarh
|
|
18 December 2000
|
0.24
|
0.150
|
0.64
|
|
16 December 2005
|
0.25
|
0.130
|
0.60
|
|
14 December 2010
|
0.26
|
0.110
|
0.64
|
|
30 December 2013
|
0.25
|
0.096
|
0.67
|
|
28 December 2018
|
0.25
|
0.088
|
0.61
|
|
Table 11
Ratios of heat flux to the net radiation flux as estimated in the present study over urban areas for winter seasons and comparison with the corresponding earlier studies.
Author(s)
|
Study period
|
QH/Q*
|
QL/Q*
|
QR/Q*
|
Present Study
|
2000 – 2018 (December - February)
|
0.19 – 0.33
|
0.019 – 0.15
|
0.60 – 0.80
|
Templeton et al., 2018
|
1 January – 30 September 2015 (suburban)
|
0.172
|
0.108
|
-
|
Hanna et al., 2011
|
-
|
0.3 – 0.4
|
-
|
0.15 – 0.5
|
Kato et al., 2008
|
12 July 2004
|
0.40 - 0.70
|
|
0.60 – 0.80
|
Kato and Yamaguchi, 2007
|
2 January 2004 (commercial)
|
0.08
|
0.00
|
0.91
|
2 January 2004 (residential)
|
0.30
|
0.00
|
0.70
|
Kato and Yamaguchi, 2005
|
8 December 2000 (urban)
|
0.46
|
0.02
|
0.96
|
8 December 2000 (suburban)
|
0.35
|
0.02
|
0.93
|
Moriwaki and Kanda, 2004
|
December 2001
|
0.35
|
0.11
|
0.60
|
January 2002
|
0.36
|
0.1
|
0.61
|
Spronken-Smith, 2002
|
16 July to 9 August 1997
|
0.16
|
0.1
|
0.74
|
11 – 24 August 1995
|
0.38
|
0.23
|
0.39
|
Oke et al., 1999
|
1 to 7 December 1993
|
0.38
|
0.04
|
0.58
|