Overweight Effects on Metabolic Rate, Chronic Diseases, Time Perception, Aging, and Lifespan: a Systematic Review

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-718090/v4

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Overweight Effects on Metabolic Rate, Chronic Diseases, Time Perception, Aging, and Lifespan: a Systematic Review

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-718090/v4

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Background: The hypothesis that metabolic rate is inversely correlated with lifespan has long been debating. Another area of controversy is the relationship between metabolic rate (MR) and time-flow perception (TFP), and aging. Aim: to study the impact of overweight and food intake on MR, TFP, chronic disease, aging, lifespan; difficulty in weight loss.

Methods. Design: a systematic review. Settings: Web of Science, Scopus, Science Direct, Kopernio, PubMed, Mendeley were searched for articles published from January 1979 until February 2022. The study bases on a viewpoint supported by a systematic literature review of 3612 articles published worldwide.

Results: In total, 107 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. From them, 22 articles were excluded with reasons. Overweight and overeating accelerate MR, leading to hyper-metabolic mode of the body. MR and lifespan are inversely correlated. TFP depends on MR; accelerated MR leads to deceleration of TFP.

Every person has an individual ability to gain weight up to 'maximum bodyweight', which indicates the individual potential energy to weight gain. Overweight excessively consumes the body ‘vital energy’, devours body potential energy. Weightloss creates ‘body power to weight gain’ that increases physical/mental activity, recovers from disease, or weight regain. The body should less calorie intake due to decrease in MR by age. Very-low-calorie diets should use for weight loss.

Conclusions: Our findings support that overweight and overeating increase MR, which delays time-flow perception, accelerates aging, limits lifespan. Metabolic intoxication should be managed during weight loss.

Endocrinology & Metabolism

Overweight

Metabolic rate

Time-flow perception

Obesity paradox

Weight gain energy

Aging

Lifespan

Metabolic rate is inversely related to time-flow perception
Overeating at overweight impairs digestion, increases metabolic rate, accelerates aging, and limits lifespan
The ‘Obesity paradox’ is driven by individual bodyweight and individual limit of weight gain mode
Weight loss delays aging, prolong lifespan, creates ‘weight gain potential energy’.

The prevalence of overweight is increasing among population all countries of the world. Overweight is a burden effect on health and lifespan. (1) The risks of chronic diseases incidence and mortality are raising in the last several decades despite better hygiene, contemporary well dwelling, modern technologies, discovery of antibiotics and medications. (1, 2)

The hypothesis metabolic rate (MR) is inversely correlated with lifespan has been long debating. (3, 4) MR provides energy to repair a cellular damage using metabolic substrates. (5) Physical activity, correlated with MR and estimated by mean walking speed, was positively correlated with mitochondrial DNA copy number. (6) An optimal environing temperature increasing improves body fertility, but decreases body lifespan. (7) MR inversely correlates with aging and lifespan. High MR across 46 species was associated with lower survival. (8)

Many researchers discuss that overweight may accelerate the rate of aging and shortening lifespan and health span. (9) Overweight associated with excess mortality and greatly increase in coronary artery disease incidence. (10) Another field of controversy is the relationships between overweight and MR, time-flow perception (TFP), aging, and lifespan.

Humans have a perception of slowing time down as motion speeds up, (11) and/or every event with repetition-expectation differentially effects on the perception of time. (12) Given how MR affects the perception of time, we can broaden our understanding of human physiology.

Weight loss methods improve in multiple cardiovascular risks, reduce in medication, improve MR. (13, 14) However, no weight loss method can support metabolic health, improve energy expenditure, reduce oxidative damage, and delay age-associated decline in physiological function. (15)

The effects of being overweight on MR, health and disease, aging, and lifespan have been previously studied separately, but not all have been studied as a whole. The impact of being overweight and MR on TFP has not been studied. The aim of the review was to examine the impact of overweight and food intake on MR, TFP, chronic disease, aging, and lifespan; difficulty in weight loss.

- Literature systematic review;

- Details of the historical subject matter and clinical/research practice including results, authors’ reflections, and lessons learned as applicable.

Review questions.

What is the association of being overweight with MR, TFP, chronic disease, aging, and lifespan? What are the difficulties in weight loss?

Search strategy.

We searched Web of Science, EBSCO (Medline Complete), Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar, Kopernio, PubMed, Mendeley, and Ovid (Wolter Kluwer) for articles published from January 1979 until February 2022 (43 years). PRISMA checklist is provided as an additional file. The following search terms were used together and separately: body weight, overweight, MR, TFP (perception of flow time, perception of time passage), aging, lifespan (life expectancy), the body power to gain weight.

The search strategy included only terms related to the exposures. Not much literature in worldwide is devoted to the relationship between overweight and TFP, MR and gravitation (gravity), aging, lifespan. We searched the literature and recorded the search results. These records were screened and eligibility criteria applied, a smaller number of articles remained. There were no language restrictions. The searches were re-run before final analyses, and applicable further studies retrieved for inclusion. Two researchers independently assessed and then reached an agreement on the included studies and the extracted data. All types of studies were included.

In the initial search, 3612 relevant articles were identified. 208 records after duplicates were removed. After the titles, abstracts, and texts were evaluated, 1151 articles were excluded (Fig. 1). In total, 107 full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. From them, 22 articles were excluded for the following reasons: twelve articles were excluded because they did not distinguish obesity from overweight; ten articles were excluded because they did not provide aging process and lifespan. Therefore, the final sample comprised of 85 articles.

Body mass, Food intake, Metabolic rate

Basal metabolic rate (BMR) represents 75-80% of total daily energy expenditure, and only 20-25% of total energy expenditure is used for external work as physical and mental activity. (3, 4, 16) BMR can imply MR as an indicator of the amount of energy expenditure per unit time.

BMR of people with the same weight may differ by up to 25%. (17) For instance, in tropical populations, BMR is 15–20% lower compared to Europeans and Americans. (18) Overweight can increase in BMR on 20-50%. (19)

The largest part of BMR expends on food digestion and weight maintain. On average, a 100-kcal surplus in daily EE and a positive 1% shift in 24-hour RQ were associated with independent increases in ad libitum food intake of approximately 175 and 204 kcal/day, respectively, indicating that both the underlying metabolism and substrate oxidation are competing drives for food intake. (20) The body expends ≈50 kcal/day for each extra food intake of 100 kcal/day. (21)

Daily extra food intake can increase metabolic press to the body. Excess food intake increases both BMR and active metabolism. (22) Over-metabolism regime over consumes body ‘vital energy’.

The body expends more energy on excess protein digestion that increases thermogenic effect up to 25% of total energy expenditure. (20) Protein diet speeds up MR. Protein metabolism overloads detoxification organs such as the kidneys, liver, skin, and lungs. Simply restricting food intake reduces MR by 45%. (23)

A body on Earth must have muscle mass in order to overcome gravitation. Body fat also consumes the body energy. The body does not need muscle mass in the open space, and muscle mass can be greatly reduced (24), but the trend is not for fat mass. Fat mass does not atrophy in the body and can live for many years. Obviously, overweight is harmful for the body in the open space. Further investigations are needed.

Metabolic rate, Gravitation, Overweight, Time-flow perception

According to classical Newtonian and quantum physics (the theory of relativity), the speed of a body and time are inversely correlated. (25) MR increases as body speed increases. TFP slows down as MR increases.

Gravitation also decelerates time flow (gravitational time deceleration), (26) and directly influences on body MR. (27) The stronger the gravitation, the slower the TFP. Weightlessness condition reduces MR by 19%. (28) Gravitation can influence on time-flow through a change in body MR. Gravitation speeds up MR and slows down TFP. (11)

Human aging speeds up TFP (29) due to the slowdown in MR.

Human activity depends on metabolism, (30) therefore MR can influence on TFP.

Overweight accelerates MR. (31) Overweight people are more likely to complain of fatigue. Decelerated TFP often occurs in overweight people, especially when fatigued. Fatigue is associated with a decrease in the endurance threshold. (32)

Decelerated TFP is observed in all people who are strongly anticipating an event or engaged in an unloved activity. (12) Obviously ‘anticipation mode’ speeds up MR.

People in childhood have a decelerated TFP (children have a fast MR), and people in old age have an accelerated TFP (old people have a slow MR). Accelerated MR leads to a decelerated TFP.

Table 1 summarizes the results of studies evaluating the impact of MR on TFP.

The younger the person, the stronger the trend to underestimate the speed of time-flow, and vice versa. (33)

After the cessation of body growth (at 23-25 years) MR becomes moderate, TFP begins to accelerate. This is an energy-saving mode that prolongs lifespan. (34) Barbi et al. showed that mortality is constant at extreme ages. Human death rates increase exponentially up to age 80, then decelerate, and plateau after age 105. There is no limit to longevity, says the study that revives human lifespan debate.

Food intake should optimally reduce as MR decreases. Nowadays, modern eating habits are increasing the prevalence of overweight.

Animal world also confirms the inverse relationship between MR and TFP. The slower the metabolism (in cold-blooded animals), the more accelerates the TFP. (30) In tortoises (with a slow metabolism) time “flows fast”, while in hummingbirds (with a fast metabolism) time “flows slowly”. (35) The faster the MR, the slower the events change around. Each increase in MR slows down TFP.

MR is different for men and women; TFP also differs between them. (36) Perhaps this is solution to why women live longer than men.

Body growth factors reduce life expectancy. (37) Attempts to accelerate the metabolism lead to aging and disease. Excess metabolism reduces the body reserves. The faster the body grows, the shorter the lifespan. (38) The Hayflick limit evidences the body energy is finite: the more cell mitosis, the shorter the cell lifespan. (39) Food intake should be optimized for energy eco-mode, especially with age. Further research needed.

Metabolic rate, Overweight, Energy expenditure, Lifespan

Weight, MR and body reserves are correlated to each other. The more weight, the more the body maintains a higher MR. An increase in bodyweight and metabolic activity is accompanied by rapid body growth, but a short life expectancy. (40)

Table 2 summarizes studies the impact of high MR on aging, survival and lifespan in humans and animals.

Overweight is the cause of increased energy expenditure. (41) A greater mass demands higher BMR. Overweight burns more calories. Decreasing body fat mass reduces BMR, increases lifespan. (3, 42) One kilogram of overweight deprives ≈50 kcal/day of daily energy expenditure. (43) Overweight shortens lifespan, and weight loss increases it. (44)

Overweight gain is an unfavorable process for the body energy. Overweight increases the total amount of metabolites. (42, 45) Overweight reduces tolerance to physical/mental stress. (9)

Mortality risk increases by 1.3 times for every 100-kcal/day increase in energy expenditure. Higher MR for 24-hour energy expenditure predicts early mortality and aging. (46) Overweight and increased MR cause faster the body aging.

Body energy expenditure depends on bodyweight. The heavier the body, the more energy it expends for living. (19, 47) Obesity increases energy expenditure.

Most of the body’s metabolism is expended on nutritional (digestive) and reproductive systems. (48) Hyperactive sex lowers total body energy and shortens lifespan. (49) Sex hormones provide an energy role. (50) Sexual intercourse reduces the level of sex hormones. The body each time makes extra efforts to restore the supply of sex hormones. (51)

Diseases, Overweight, Metabolic rate, Time-flow perception

Every disease increases MR. (52) Overweight patients expend more energy than healthy overweight people. (53)

Every patient has a decelerated TFP. (54) Patients are more prone to impatience in achieving results and haste of events. Decelerated TFP is associated with an increase in MR in patients. (30, 55) An increase in blood pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, local/general temperature, sweating, extra synthesis of enzymes/hormones, immune system activation, extra secretions (sputum, sweat, urine, feces, etc.) indicate an increase in MR.

Every patient has a higher MR and expends more of his own ‘vital energy’ than a healthy one. (56) TFP is decelerated in every tired but healthy person, as well as in a sick person. Both are too impatient to achieve results and haste of events.

Overweight correlates with the development of diseases such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, allergic and inflammatory diseases, urolithiasis and cholelithiasis, liver steatosis and fibrosis, and tumors. (1, 57)

Individual bodyweight, Potential body energy, ‘Obesity paradox’, Lifespan

The ability to accumulate fat mass is one of the foundations for survival in conditions of food shortage. Food shortages have always accompanied mankind. Currently, the ability to survive leads to an obesity-epidemic. (1, 19)

Every person has their own individual bodyweight. Normal individual bodyweight is when the body does not suffer from any diseases. The more potential energy a person has, the more weight he can gain. The ability to gain weight is limited due to the finite potential energy of the body. The limit of weight gain is when bodyweight cannot be increased and when bodyweight stabilizes at the highest point of body weight gain, which is ‘terminal bodyweight’ or 'maximum bodyweight'. Bodyweight is an aggregated and integral indicator of the body’s energy reserve.

Individual bodyweight and individual limit of weight gain mode may explain the ‘Obesity paradox’. The obesity paradox refers to extant evidence showing that obesity in the elderly or in patients with a number of chronic diseases may be protective and associated with reduced mortality. (58)

A person who is able to weight gain is a potentially powerful person, and the more he can weight gain, the more individual potential energy he has. For instance, a person gaining to 100 kg (when it is the highest point of body weight that he can gain) is more powerful than a person gaining only 90 kg (that is the highest point of body weight that he can gain). Therefore, we may not compare the health level in people by total or average body weight, because bodyweight is individual for each person. We should compare the health level in the same person in his different weight position, indicating the presence of a degree of individual potential energy.

Every person has their own individual high point of overweight and unique potential energy reserve, so to compare one person with another is a big mistake. We may not compare non-obese patients with obese patients, because each of them has an individual potential energy. Science cannot yet directly measure the individual potential energy reserve in an organism.

Attention should be paid on three modes of dynamics of body weight changes in adults. Firstly, if a person is in weight gain mode, he now has potential energy, but which is being expended on gaining and maintaining weight. The person will gain of weight until achieving the highest individual point of body weight.

Secondly, if a person is in weight loss mode, there are two options: an intentional (diets, physical activity) and unintentional (infections, chronic diseases, stress and distress, other pathology) weight loss. The intentional weight loss regime allows the body to increase the body's potential energy, resulting in healing. (42, 59) In unintentional weight loss mode, the body loses its own body potential energy (for example, due to pathology activity, excessive alcohol use, illicit drug use, or severe chronic diseases), which is an unfavorable predictor for health. (58) Any disease leads to a decrease in body weight, because disease leads to an increase in MR. Accelerated MR leads to a decrease in body weight, and the body recovers faster.

Thirdly, if a person is in weight stable mode, then two modes should be distinguished at least: the weight stable mode at 'maximum bodyweight'; and weight stable mode at interim period. The body in a weight stable mode at 'maximum bodyweight' loses its own body potential energy, and sooner or later, he will undergo pathology. Illness is an indicator of the crisis of the body's potential energy. Every disease is accompanied by bodyweight loss. (13, 55) Weight loss helps the body recover faster. Simply restricting food intake decreases MR by 45%. (23) A decrease in MR is the body ability to survive in conditions of food shortage.

Weight loss creates ‘body potential energy to weight gain’. The ‘body potential energy to weight gain’ increases physical/mental activity, and also allows recovering from a lot of chronic diseases, such as hypertension, gastric ulcer, psoriasis, diabetes, bronchial asthma, neoplasms, urolithiasis, gallstone disease, etc. (13, 60-63)

Chronic overeating worsens digestion, especially if a person is overweight; leads to malnutrition, metabolic intoxication, and immune stress. (64) Alimentary energy is the energy expenditure for food intake, digestion, absorption, transportation, storage, and excretion.

Bodyweight tends to increase with age, and this is mainly due to fat gain. (10) The number of chronic diseases also increases by age. (65) Every person has unique parameters and predisposition to diseases. The presence of various diseases in humans is associated with individual chronobiorhythms. (2) The biological age of the organs and systems varies between each other and in individuals; and individual parts of the body have different biological ages. (66) Overweight, when bodyweight at the highest point of body weight gain ('maximum bodyweight’), is a consensus between body’s potential energy and body fat mass (nutrient reserve).

Aging, Metabolic rate, Weight loss

Effect of calorie restriction on aging and age-related diseases is well described. (9, 67) Overweight plays a central role of many age-related chronic diseases and aging. (68) Overweight people have a higher rate of aging related to their metabolism. (66)

Why weightloss is not easy in practice? The lower the food intake, the greater the percentage of nutrient absorption, and vice versa. Every diet should use a very low-calorie, or ‘zero calories’ diet. (61-63) The very-low-calorie diet allowed to activate of endogenous lipolysis.

MR decreases with age. (69) The body under Earth gravitation takes place in an energy-saving mode to prolong lifespan. Energy expenditure becomes careful with age and can make lifespan as unlimited (34, 70)

Decreasing MR with age may not be a sign of aging; it is the energy expenditure adaptation mode. Weight loss optimizes MR, creates ‘body potential energy to weight gain’. The greatest decrease in total energy expenditure (including BMR, active expenditure, and food thermic effect) occurs after weight loss, which could indicate how much the body expends its own energy to maintain overweight. (71) The over-metabolic mode excessively consumes the body ‘vital energy’. Overweight is useless cycle of adenosine triphosphate consumption. (72)

Not all weightloss is positive for the body. Some weightloss methods are useless for recovering from diseases. Weightloss due to chronic and neoplastic diseases results in energy expenditure, while weightloss due to a restrictive diet results in energy savings. The increase in life expectancy in most countries is largely due to the improvement of household living conditions, energy savings in body heating; improvement of hygiene/sanitary conditions, reduction of infectious diseases; greater security for living; less threat from wild animals, military actions. (1, 3)

We should use such weightloss methods that allow the body to receive energy and burn body fat at the same time. Body fat is a good source of energy (endogenous lipolysis), but fat ages and densers if left unused for a long time. Old fat absorbs intermediate and end metabolic products that can induce metabolic intoxication during weightloss. During weightloss, metabolic intoxication should be managed. Endogenous lipolysis provides the body with nutrients, vitamins, trace elements. (61, 62) Endogenous lipolysis starts only after ending of carbohydrate store, after 4-5 days of restriction diet. (73) Having one meal during the work day (usually after work-hours) can be one way to prevent weight gain/regain. (62, 74)

(1) Body mass and food intake are the main causes to maintain high MR. Overweight is a balance between body potential energy and nutrient reserve.

(2) Overweight increases MR that leads to over metabolic mode; MR inversely correlates to TFP. As the body ages, MR decreases and TFP accelerates. MR decreasing with age is a sign of energy-saving mode to prolong lifespan.

(3) Overweight increases energy expenditure. MR inversely correlates to lifespan; increased MR accelerates aging; hyperactive sex life shortens lifespan. Hyper-metabolic mode over-consumes the body ‘vital energy’.

(4) Disease accelerates MR and decelerates TFP. Weightgain depletes the body potential energy; bodyweight at ‘maximum overweight’ is the ground for disease development. Overweight devours body potential energy. Overeating at overweight impairs digestion.

(5) Weightloss creates ‘body power to weight gain’ that increases physical/mental activity, recovers from diseases, or weight regain. The ‘Obesity paradox’ is driven by individual bodyweight and individual limit of weight gain mode.

(6) Intentional weightloss optimizes MR. Very-low-calorie diets effectively activate endogenous lipolysis. Endogenous metabolic intoxication should be managed as part of weight loss.

Study limitations: This study has several limitations.

First, the study was not designed as meta-analysis.

Second, published studies about the positive role of weight loss on MR, time perception, chronic disease, aging, and lifespan are very limited in scope and number.

Third, the study included systematic reviews, non-randomized, and randomized studies.

Further multicenter randomized controlled trials are needed.

BMR: basal metabolic rate

MR: metabolic rate

TFP: time-flow perception.

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Table 1. Summary of studies assessing the impact of MR on time-flow perception

Authors	Protocol	Metabolic rate parameters	Time-flow perception
Ulmer HV et al., 1996(75)	Human study	MR at heavy exercise	Delay
Misanin JR et al., 1998(76)	Animal study	MR at low temperatures	Slow the internal clock
Block RA et al., 1999(77)	Human studies (Review, 20 experiments)	MR in children	Delay
Harms JK et al., 2003(35)	Human study	Increasing MR	Delay
Hancock P et al., 2010(33)	Human study (n=320)	MR in young age	Delay
Healy K et al., 2013(30)	Human and Animal studies	Body mass increasing	Delay

MR, metabolic rate.

Table 2 Summary of studies assessing the impact of a high MR on aging, survival and lifespan.

Authors	Protocol	Participants	Measurements of high MR	Aging/ Survival/Lifespan
Negasheva M et al., 2014(78)	Human study	119 (aged 60 to 104-years-old females)	Biological age	Aging accelerated
Keil G et al, 2015(79)	Human and Animal studies		Body temperature	Aging accelerated and Lower lifespan
Ravussin E et al., 2015(80)	Human study	218 (females and males)	Resting metabolic rate	Aging accelerated
Geisler C et al., 2016(81)	Human study	448 (females and males)	Energy expenditure	Aging accelerated
Munro D et al., 2019(82)	Animal study	-	Mitochondrial metabolism	Aging accelerated
Zampino M et al., 2020(83)	Human study	619 men and women aged 24–97 years	Mitochondrial function and Resting metabolic rate	Aging accelerated
Boyce A et al, 2020(8)	Animal study	46 species, and from literature data across 147 species	Resting metabolic rate	Lower survival
Protsiv M et al, 2020(84)	Human study	677423 human body temperature measurements	Body temperature from 1860 to 2017	Lower lifespan
Kelemen E et al, 2019(85)	Animal study	Bumble bees	Resting metabolic rate	Lower lifespan
Most J et al., 2020(15)	Human studies	>10500	Total daily energy expenditure	Aging accelerated
Increase in metabolic rate (MR) considered if: mitochondrial oxidative; Biological age (systolic and diastolic blood pressure, forced lung capacity, expiratory breath-holding, crystalline accommodation, acuity of hearing or auditory threshold under 4,000 Hz, body mass, self-evaluation of health status; weight gain).

Ethics approval and consent to participate. Not applicable

Consent for publication. Our manuscript does not contain any individual person’s data in any form. All authors of the manuscript affirm that they had access to the study data and reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Availability of supporting data. Not applicable.

Competing interest. The authors declare that they have no any competing interests (financial, professional, or personals) that are relevant to the manuscript. We have read and understood the journal policy on declaration of interests and have no interests to declare.

Funding: This research did not receive any funding from public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Authors' contributions: KO: design and performance, narrative analysis and review, bibliography review, data collection, scientific analysis, scientific executor, writing, editing, and revision. GB: study design, writing the discussion, bibliography and paper review. MG: design and performance, scientific analysis, bibliography and paper review. ZZ: study design, research executor, editing, and revision. BD: preparation e-version data collection, bibliography and paper review, scientific analysis, writing the methods. AT: scientific analysis, paper scientific review, writing the methods and print.

Acknowledgments. The authors thank very much Dana Shakhizadayeva for English improvement and technical assistance.

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Overweight Effects on Metabolic Rate, Chronic Diseases, Time Perception, Aging, and Lifespan: a Systematic Review

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