Ethnobotanical research to assess the diversity of tree species used in wood carving in Southern Benin: Perspective for sustainable forest conservation


 Background: This research aimed at assessing the diversity of timber species used in wood carving in southern Benin, identify various sources of woods as well as their ranking as most used. We also stated the relative importance of species of which woods were recorded as the most used. The scarcity or availability of species woods and their causes in recent years were assessed and carvers’ willingness to contribute to species conservation was documented. With a perspective of sustainable forest conservation, the impact of this activity on forests was assessed throughout the paper. Methods: A preliminary survey was conducted to determine the number of wood carvers in three districts of Southern Benin. Then, a semi-structured questionnaire served to collect data from twelve wood carvers. Various percentage of carvers were calculated and we determine the Use Value of the most used species woods in order to assess their relative importance. Results: Twenty-two species were used in wood carving with most species having red or yellow wood. The purchase of wood in industrial markets was the predominant source followed by the direct purchase from plantation and tree owners. Diospyros mespiliformis, Chlorophora excelsa,Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea were species of which woods were most However, Gmelina arborea and Chlorophora excelsa exhibited the highest Use Value meaning their relative importance in terms of diversity of uses. All carvers reported the scarcity of woods and the destruction of forests and plantations for logging were the main cause; 25% of them own plantations of G. arborea and A. auriculiformis. Carvers indicated their willingness to have plantations of T. grandis and G. arborea for personal use and trade. Promoting reforestation and timber species plantation through sustainable tools is needed, and sensitizing them about forest conservation.Conclusions: A diversity of species are used in carving in Southern Benin, the most used species being D. mespiliformis, C. excelsa, T. grandis and G. arborea. Gmelina arborea and C. excelsa had the highest Use Value. Carvers indicated their willingness to contribute to species plantation and conservation. Wood carving impacts on forest fragmentation and there is a need to promote reforestation and plantation, and to provide carvers with tools for plantation management.


Introduction
Forests play a key role in people's life and are of inestimable value. Forests are vital natural resources (WWF 2020) and crucial for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Simeons 2018). Forests and their derivative timber and non-timber products have been used by societies around the world for thousands of years (Ramage et al. 2017), and also provide ecological services, contributing signi cantly to environmental stability (Simeons 2018). Forests are also a treasury of medicinal plants and pharmaceutical ingredients (Dossou-Yovo et al. 2014. Wood harvested from natural forests and plantations is used for fuel, construction, and craft uses such as carving. Although timber and non-timber forest products remain an important source of livelihoods in large parts of the world, especially in Africa, their extraction is also a major driver of deforestation (UCS 2016).
Wood carving has been a common cultural practice of civilizations throughout the ages. For instance, samples of wooden art by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and Chinese still exist. Wood carving plays a great role in the cultural identity of countries. In Benin, wood carving has been practised since time immemorial and many ancient wooden artifacts have been preserved, including many that explain the key role played by the country during the slavery period. Despite the cultural and historic importance of wood carving in Benin, no research has been conducted on this activity. Many people today still depend on wood carving for their livelihoods (Okrah 2002; Appiah-Kubi et al. 2014, Kayode et al. 2016). As a result, much attention should be focused on this practice so as to ensure sustainable and improved livelihoods for wood carvers and their families. To achieve this, natural and planted forests from which wood is harvested for carving should be well managed and conserved. The aim of this paper was to report the diversity of timber species used in wood carving in Benin, the sources of wood used, and the relative importance of the most commonly used woods. From the perspective of sustainable forest conservation, the availability of wood to carvers and their willingness to contribute to species conservation were assessed. It was expected that the results of this study wouldenable forestry advisers and political leaders to better organize wood carving throughout the country.

Materials And Methods
Prior to data collection, a preliminary survey was conducted to record the total number of wood carvers in three districts of Benin, Ouidah, Abomey-Calavi and Cotonou. There were ve wood carvers in Ouidah, two in Abomey-Calavi and ve in Cotonou, based at the Benin art promotion centers. These twelve wood carvers were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to gather knowledge on the diversity of woods they used, their sources of wood, the ranking of the most used woods, and categories of art made with each wood. The availability of wood in recent years as well carvers' willingness to contribute to timber species conservation were also investigated. Based on the local names of recorded species, de Souza (1988) and Arbonnier (2002)were used to determine the botanical name of each species. Direct observations of the woods that carvers used and the products were also made. In order to access the relative importance of the four most used woods, their Use Value (Zenderland et al. 2019) was calculated by dividing the number of uses for the concerned wood by the number of carvers who mentioned the wood as most used. Percentages of carvers were determined for various items throughout the paper to assess ethnobotanical knowledge related to wood carving. It was obtained by dividing the number of citations for the concerned item by the total number of carvers surveyed. Carvers were also asked to free list the causes of wood scarcity or abundance in the recent years.

Results
Diversity of woody species used in carving The wood of 22 species, belonging to 22 genera in 15 botanical families,were reported to be used in carving. The most represented family was the Caesalpiniaceae, represented by one species in each of three genera, Afzelia africana, Delonix regia and Daniellia oliveri ( Table 1). The families Moraceae, Meliaceae, Verbenaceae, Mimosaceae and Anacardiace were each represented by two species, and there was one species in each of the remaining nine families. The wood used in carving exhibited a range of colours according to the respondents (Table 1). Four major colours were recorded, yellow (seven species including two described as clear yellow and yellow brown, respectively), red (seven species), white (six species including one described as ash) and black (two species).

Sources wood used in carving
Carvers reported four sources of woods used in carving. These were wood provided by customers themselves, wood bought by carvers in industrial or local informal markets, wood purchased by carvers from owners of plantations or individual trees, and the harvest of wood from carvers' own plantations. The predominant source recorded was the purchase of wood in industrial wood markets (75% of respondents), followed by the direct purchase from plantation or tree owners (58% of respondents), the provision of wood by customers themselves (58% of respondents), and collection of wood from carvers' plantations (25% of respondents). It is important to highlight the low proportion of carvers who harvest wood from their own plantations.

Ranking of woods used for carving
Fifty percent of respondents reported wood of Diospyros mespiliformis (locally called ébène in Fon; black wood) as the most used for carving while 42% mentioned the wood of Chlorophora excelsa (locally called lokotin; yellow brown wood) as the most used ( Table 2). Wood of Tectona grandis (têkitin in Fon; yellow wood) ranked third in this paper because it was mentioned by 50% of respondents as second most used.
The fourth most used wood was Gmelina arborea (mélina or fô tin in Fon; white wood). Regarding the sources of the most used woods, all informants mentioned the purchase of D. mespiliformis wood in industrial wood markets, wood coming from northern Benin. Some informants (25%) reported the purchase of the wood of C. excelsa from tree owners and 17% of them insisted on its provision by customers themselves. Informants who mentioned T. grandis and G. arborea con rmed that they mostly purchased wood from tree and plantation owners as well as local informal markets.

The Use Value of the most used woods
In terms of utilization, the woods of D. mespiliformis, C. excelsa, T. grandis and G. arborea were all used for small and large ornamental arts (See photo 1, 2 and 3 as examples of recorded arts; many other photos available with authors). Additionally, the wood of C. excelsa was used to carve spiritual objects, and the woods of T. grandis and G. arborea were used to make table utensils. Among the most commonly used species, C. excelsa exhibited a relatively greater importance than D. mespiliformisas shown by the Use Value (Table 3). Although the wood of G. arborea was the fourth most commonly used, it had the highest Use Value while wood of D. mespiliformis had the lowest Use Value.

Availability of woods according to carvers
All informants reported the scarcity of woods for carving in recent years. They also highlighted that wood has consequently become very expensive. With regards to the causes of this scarcity, six reasons were reported ( Table 4). The most frequently mentioned cause of scarcity was the destruction of forests and plantations for logging. The international trade of wood as well as political restrictions towards local trade of wood ranked second in the same proportion followed the exploitation of wood for charcoal production, population growth and lack of plantation.
Willingness to contribute to recorded species conservation Only 25% of wood carvers owned plantations of Gmelina arborea and Acacia auriculiformis, with an average area of 2.5 ha. All informants were interested in investing in woody species plantations if they had more money. Fifty percent of carvers reported that they would plant G. arborea while 42% would prefer to plant T. grandis plantations from which they could harvest woods for carving.

Discussion
Diversity of woody species used in curving Twenty-three plant species were recorded as used in carving con rming that wood carvers have an extensive knowledge about the quality of woods and their utilization. The range of species used suggests that their exploitation can increase environmental pressure, contributing to forest fragmentation and local species loss all over the country. Trees are, most of the time, uprooted for wood collection so, although wood carving provides an income to workers, it constitutes a threat to species conservation. Wood carving was reported as a threat to forest diversity in Ghana because of exploitation of endangered species (Okrah 2002). Kayode et al. (2016) recorded 39 plant species belonging to 23 families used in carving in Nigeria. Similarly, the wood carving industry in Kenya is highly dependent on indigenous tree species (Mutinda 2014).

Types of woods recorded
The diversity of type of wood used con rms that the choice depends on items to be carved (Kayode et al. 2016). Woods, in addition to their colour also vary from soft to hard and this in uences the items for which they are used. A relatively high number of species was recorded as giving red wood followed by species having yellow wood. This con rms the various attractive aspects searched for in wood by carvers and the assertion that the components of art include colour, patterns and the reproduction of visual likeness (Morris-Kay 2010).

Sources of recorded woody species
The purchase of wood in industrial markets was recorded as the main source for carvers followed by direct purchase from plantation and tree owners. A very low proportion of carvers owned their plantations from which woods may be collected. These aspects con rm that harvesting of wood for carving threatens the conservation of forests throughout Benin. The majority of wood traded in industrial markets comes from the central and northern parts of the country. So, natural forests and sometimes plantations are cut down to satisfy a growing demand for wood. Even customers who provided their own woods for carving are destroying individual trees that are expected to protect the environment. No informant mentioned the purchase of wood from public plantations meaning a lack of public forestry areas, plantations or agroforestry parks, wherein carvers could get woods whenever they want provided they are able to afford its cost.
Ranking of woods used for carving Diospyros mespiliformis ranked as the most used wood and informants who selected it were mostly those working in Cotonou. Carvers insisted that this wood is the most appreciated by tourists. The black colour may attract people and it is easy to sell art made with this wood even if the customers are local. Carvers using this wood targeted the international market by exporting their arts. The genus Diospyros is widely recognized for its black wood. Furthermore, informants highlighted its durability, hardness and ability to take a high polish. The collection of D. mespiliformis wood from natural forests to satisfy the increasing demand is clearly a threat to the species conservation. Chlorophora excelsa is widely used in Benin as its wood serves to make sacred objects in addition to ornamental art. Similarly to the present ndings, Okonkwo et al. (2016) reported the use of C. excelsa (Iroko) in carving sacred objects in Nigeria. In addition to the exploitation of this species in carving, it is widely used in carpentry and as medicine in Benin (Ouinsavi et al. 2005). Several years ago, the pressure placed on populations of C. excelsa of its exploitation in Benin was stated (Sokpon et al. 2003) and its exploitation in carving no doubt increases its extinction rate. Alter natives should be found to help carvers maintain their livelihoods without compromising the sustainability of the species. Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea are two plantation species that have been grown in Benin for decades. They were recorded among the most used in carving. Similarly to the present ndings, T. grandis has also been reported in wood carving in Ghana (Appiah-Kubi et al. 2014). Tectona grandis and G. arborea woods were purchased from tree and plantation owners which con rm a high pressure on these species as they are also highly demanded for carpentry throughout the country. Carvers justi ed the use of G. arborea wood by the fact that its white colour gave an attractive aspect for arts. In addition, they argued that woods of G. arborea and T. grandis are sometimes more available than other woods. Similarly, G. arborea and T. grandis were mostly preferred for wood carving in India (Sharma et al. 2013). Tectona grandis has been identi ed as the species with most potential for the establishment ofhigh-quality tropical hardwood plantations under sustainable forest management (Thulasidas and Baillères 2017) The Use Value of the most used woods The results con rmed that the frequency of use of a species wood can sometimes contrast with its relative importance. Gmelina arborea and C. excelsa both had greater Use Value than D. mespiliformis despite the more frequent use of this species. These ndings con rmed the importance of the Use Value to assess the relative importance of plant species in ethnobotanical studies.

Availability of woods according to carvers
The scarcity of woods recorded in this research con rmed the high environmental pressure placed on tree species used in carving. Forests are fragmented to satisfy wood demands for carving and many other purposes. Thishas negative impacts on biodiversity conservation all over the country. Reforestation programs taking into account woody species used in carving are necessary throughout the country. Priority species can be C. excelsa and D. mespiliformis. As T. grandis and G. arborea have already been grown in plantations throughout the country for many decades, leaders are encouraged to promote these species in plantations. It has been stated that, in Benin, farmers specialized in pole-wood production to supply urban demand for cheap construction timber (Aoudji et al. 2014). Large individual trees of T. grandis and G. arborea are needed to ensure a long-term wood carving activity in Benin because art made by carvers plays a great role in tourism and in the cultural identity of the country.

Willingness to contribute to recorded species conservation
Only asmall proportion of wood carvers had their own plantations which con rmed that the wood supply for this activity contributes to the fragmentation of natural forests and existing plantations throughout the country. All carvers con rmed their willingness to establish plantations if it was economically possible, and the majority of them would prefer plantations of G. arborea and T. grandis. They argued that G. arborea is a rapid growth species that can produce wood for sale and personal use in a short period of time and T. grandis, according to carvers, is a resistant and good quality wood. They also mentioned the trade of T. grandis wood for income generation as the species is highly demanded in carpentry in Benin and more widely in region. Similarly to the present ndings, carvers in Ghana indicated their willingness to use any type of wood provided the tools and equipment for processing them work well (Appiah-Kubi et al. 2014). The present ndings also con rmed the results of McEwan et al. (2020) who stated that the factors in uencing the form of plantation include the type and nature of the plantation owner, and the change in demand for different and new forest products. Forestry advisers and political leaders need to take such ndings into account to promote plantations and ensure a sustainable wood carving industry throughout the country. In addition, carvers should be provided with tools for plantation management.

Conclusion
Many skilled artisans in Benin depend upon wood carving for their livelihoods. A diversity of species are used in carving in Southern Benin, the most used species being D. mespiliformis, C. excelsa, T. grandis and G. arborea. Gmelina arborea and C. excelsa had the highest Use Value. Wood carving impacts on forest fragmentation and there is a need to promote reforestation and plantation, and to provide carvers with tools for plantation management. Carvers indicated their willingness to contribute to species plantation and conservation. This investigation on woody species used in carving in Benin intends to stimulate the assessment of the ecological and dendrometric characteristics of the most used species in carving in order to better monitor the impacts of this activity, as well as screening nancial aspects of wood carving.