The water sector is susceptible to climate change, where water is the significant medium through which climate change impacts are felt, Droogers et al. [1]. Water is at the center of climate change impacts matrix because of its involvement in all components of the climatic system, Bates et al. [2]; Kusangaya et al.[3]. The impacts on water resources are well documented and Africa is the most vulnerable continent, IPCC [4]. The water sector is still to cope with the changing climate, especially in developing countries as maintained by World Bank [5]. Certainly projected impacts will affect water availability and use and consequently, its management. Climate change affects water resources directly and indirectly through socio-economic and biophysical environments, Bates et al. [1]; IPCC [4]. Responding to the phenomenon requires a holistic approach, which is scenario-based. Progress can be noted on the implementation and studies on adaptation of the water sector in some rural parts of China (Tianjin), India, South Africa, Somalia and Ethiopia (Wilk & Wittgren [6]; Zhou [7].
Climate change responses are actions taken to “modify the effects of agents of change and effectively reduce consequential vulnerability” Huq [8 p. 1]. Ludi [9] maintained that, there are two broad types of climate change response options that is, mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation involves actions that are aimed at preventing or retarding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, South African Development Community (SADC) [10]. On the contrary, Carter cited in Huq [8 p. 12] commented that adaptation is "any adjustment - passive, reactive, or anticipatory - that can respond to anticipated or actual consequences associated with climate change.” However, Elliot et al. [11] concur with Smit and Wandel [12] that adaptation has taken different definitions depending on the subject of the study. The adopted definition of climate change adaptation in this study is that of IPCC which considers adaptation as the “process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects. In human systems, adaptation seeks to moderate or avoid harm or exploit beneficial opportunities…” [13 p. 118]. Adaptation strategies are determined by the degree of vulnerability, magnitude of change and adaptive capacity of the system to the climate stimuli of the physical systems, natural ecosystems, socio-economic conditions and institutional aspects of the country, Smit and Wandel [12]. Proper adjustment addresses vulnerability and strengthens resilience or adaptive capacity.
Ludi [9] identified two broad types of adaptation, which are planned and autonomous. Under planned adaptation, three strategies are noted in the face of uncertainty; being scenario-based approaches to planning, adaptive management and integrated water resources management (IWRM), Nicol and Kuar [14]. Elliot et al. state that ‘no regrets’ adaptation strategies are more appealing, which “would generate net social and/or economic benefits irrespective of whether or not climate change occurs” [11 p. 6].
Adaptation to the impacts of climate change on freshwater resources requires both top-down and bottom-up approaches. Ludi, [9] maintained that top-down methods support an assessment of impacts and possible adaptation actions. Bottom-up strategies focus on reducing vulnerability and strengthening resilience to climate change vagaries. Bottom-up analysis identifies the vulnerabilities of the system, factors and conditions that enable successful coping with climate-related threats at different levels of households and communities. SADC [10] advocate that new strategies should be rooted in local and indigenous knowledge. The blending of the two methods is appropriate for adaptation policies and methodologies due to complementarities.
Finlay and Adera [15] categorized adaptation priorities for water into five areas: supply, demand, availability, management and governance. Developing countries are implementing adaptation strategies that are oriented towards the supply and demand side. Assessment of these responses is lacking at national and catchment levels, Nicol and Kuar [14]. A concerted effort is noted at the international level to curb the effects of climate change in the water sector and have been dominated by the reduction of greenhouse gases. Adger et al. [16] note that Africa’s response to climate change is biased towards adaptation than mitigation. Nilsson and Hammer [17] further stress that increased water stress and demand is due to climate change coupled with population growth, rapid urbanization, industrialization and lifestyle. According to United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) [18], water in Africa is unevenly distributed, where the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is the most water-rich country in Africa possessing an estimated 52 per cent of Africa’s surface water reserves (rivers, lakes and wetlands) and estimated 23 percent of Africa’s internal renewable water resources. Kusangaya et al. [3] reiterated the impacts of climate change in the water sector in southern Africa. The poverty and low adaptive capacity of the region increase its vulnerability. Mazvimavi [19] avers that Africa lacks climate literacy- the skill and proper implementation and information dissemination on time for effective responses to climate change.
Zimbabwe’s water sector has not been spared by the impacts of climate change. Of late Zimbabwe had no specific policy response to the phenomenon. Chagutah [20 p. 12] puts it that there is no comprehensive, specific national policy and legislative framework for climate change and climate change adaptation. The National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) was realized in 2012, yet Zimbabwe has been active in the international arena as it signed and ratified the UNFCCC in 1992 and agreed to the Kyoto Protocol on Climate Change in June 2009. Makwara and Tauyanago [21], Dube and van Der Zarg [22], Mapetere et al. [23] note that it is not surprising that Zimbabwean cities to date such as Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru, Kadoma, Mutare and Masvingo face acute water challenges, with some like Norton experiencing “thirst in the midst of the twin lakes”, Chigonda [24]. Makwara and Tauyanago [21] further reiterate that Zimbabwean cities are choked with water woes in the midst of plenty. The Zimbabwean water resources are still to be fully developed. There are serious weaknesses in the present water resources planning and management procedures. As a result, Nilsson and Hammer [17] laments that there is a lack of understanding of and institutional facilities for dealing with water in its broader environmental and cyclical context.
Chagutah [20] reports that most of the dams in Zimbabwe have been decommissioned since 2007, with three reservoirs, Muzhwi, Bangala and Mutirikwi being temporarily decommissioned in 2016 Mhiribidi et al. [25]. Climate change has affected ground water recharge and base flow, Davis and Hirji [26], Government of Zimbabwe [27]. Generally, Davis and Hirji [26] note that rates of groundwater recharge are not known, although they have been tried to be quantified by Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO). They identified two catchment-scale studies, namely Mzingwane and Save catchments, that have modeled the possible impacts of climate change on precipitation and agriculture. In addition United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) [28] applied ten downscaled climate models to the Save catchment to understand adaptation actions for dry land agriculture and livestock farming in the Chiredzi district, Brown et al. [29;30]. Mhiribidi et al. [25] modeled optimal water resource allocation in the southeast low -veld holding Mutirikwi sub catchment at tangent. Studies of the water sector in Masvingo are limited and confined to the Masvingo urban, Dube and van der Zaarg, [22]; Mapfumo and Madesha, [25] and Mapetere et al., [23]. Earlier study by Nilsson and Hammer [17] confirmed that there is insufficient attention to water resources on issues concerning catchment conservation, water harvesting and environmental impacts. Davis and Hirji [26] further point that Zimbabwe’s water sector has started to respond to climate change through the construction of dams, policy reforms, establishment of catchment and sub-catchment councils and the National Water Resources Management Strategy. However, according to Mlungisi [31] the responsiveness of the water sector in Zimbabwe has not been proactive at the sub-catchment level. There is no assessment that has made in the water sector regarding its responsiveness to climate change. There is a need for assessment of the current responses, which is the aim of this study, to determine the suitability, applicability, effectiveness and sustainability of the response strategies in the Mutirikwi sub-catchment in Masvingo. This was supported by two sub-objectives:
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To establish the climatic trend of temperature and rainfall in MSC over a forty-year period.
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To determine the response strategies of climate change used in the water sector in MSC, Masvingo.
This study was guided by two research questions.
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What is the trend of climate for the past four decades in MSC Masvingo?
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How sustainable, effective, efficient and relevant are the response strategies and with what success in the water sector to the impacts of climate change in MSC?