“Curanderismo”: Historical Zootherapy Among Criollo Inhabitants in Rural Areas of Córdoba, Argentina

Abstract

Background

Studying historical sources and comparing them with current data allows us to describe the uses and customs of past human groups, as well as to make a dynamic comparison with the current state of human-environment relations. Also, this contribution focuses on the study of zootherapeutic remedies, which have been much less addressed in ethnoscience than medicinal plant resources.

This article presents a compilation and analysis of animal-based remedies included in the category of "curanderismo" in the National Folklore Survey (NFS, Argentina, 1921).

Methods

The use of 37 individuals or parts of animal species of different taxa for 66 different applications is described, analyzed and related to the current use in zootherapy.

Results

The NFS included records of 37 animal species (7 of them domestic), animal parts or animal-derived products, with 66 different uses. Of these species, 9 (3 domestic and 6 wild) continue to be used (Clitellata, Arachnida, Insecta, Mammalia, Aves, Reptilia and Amphibia) for multiple purposes.

Conclusions

The NFS reveals a complex ethnomedical system that included local biodiversity but also elements of cultural syncretism. Paying attention to them may enrich our view of the daily life of current and past rural communities.

Introduction

Animals have been used as medicinal sources since ancient times; indeed, there are documented records as ancient as De Materia Medica by the Greek physician Dioscorides (circa 1st century BC) and even the Ebers Papyri (Egypt, 1550 BC), which mention and describe the use of zootherapeutic products (animals, parts or derived products used as medicines) (Quave and Pieroni, 2013). The use of zootherapy is ancient and involves a great diversity of species; for example, a literature review (Alves and Alves, 2011) revealed that at least 584 animal species are used in traditional medicine in Latin America.

This importance of traditional medicine, both in the number of species involved and in its continuity over time, is especially evident in rural communities. On the one hand, in rural areas, access to modern medicine is limited and, on the other hand, the close and continuous interaction of populations with the environment (and even economic dependence on it) encourages the acquisition of knowledge about useful resources (Alves et al., 2008; Alves and Alves, 2011).

In this sense, research about the species used in traditional medicine is very important. However, while the plant species of medicinal use are deeply known, zootherapeutic resources have been scarcely explored (e.g. Alves and Alves 2011), with knowledge being currently fragmented and potentially incomplete. In Argentina, data on the use of animal remedies are quite scarce (Scarpa, 2004; Martínez and Barboza, 2013; Zamudio and Hilgert, 2011; Martínez, 2013; Hernández et al., 2015; Borghi et al., 2017; Castillo and Ladio 2017; Rosso and Pautasso, 2017; Battistón, 2017). These works are of great value to understand the role of animal-based products in traditional medicine. Specifically in Córdoba we only recorded two studies that incorporate information about the medicinal use of animals, a specific one about zootherapy (Arias Toledo and Trillo 2014) and an ethnoornithological study (Arias Toledo and Trillo, 2017) that includes information about the medicinal use of some birds.

Traditional Ecological Knowledge –in the sense established by Berkes (1999)– is fundamentally oral, with direct transmission and, as such, sensitive to loss or resignifications (Torrico Chalabe and Trillo, 2019). Thus, studying historical sources and comparing them with current data allows us to describe the uses and customs of past human groups, as well as to make a dynamic comparison with the current state of human-environment relations.

Among the historical sources, the National Folklore Survey (NFS) of 1921 has enormous potential. It was commissioned by the National Government and conducted by the teachers of the Láinez Schools (Pineau, 2007); the survey is the first systematic compilation carried out in our country (Arovich de Bogado, 2005) and is still unpublished. As described by Scarpa and Rosso (2018) in their central ethnobiological publication based on the NFS, its primary objective was to survey and document different folkloric manifestations of oral production, and diverse cultural practices and popular religiosity aspects associated with plants and animals in Argentina. To do this, the National Council of Education entrusted teachers of the Láinez schools with the task of conducting a survey –following a standard scheme– to record those folkloric manifestations.

This contribution aims to describe and analyze the knowledge about the use of zootherapeutic products made by Criollo inhabitants of rural Córdoba in 1921, within the framework of their ethnomedical system, and then compare such knowledge with that held by current populations.We understand the ethnomedicine of the rural areas of Córdoba –and of most of the mestizo populations of Argentina– as a complex system that combines treatment through the use of natural resources with magical elements and propitiatory rituals (Arias Toledo, 2006; Hilgert and Gil, 2007; Martínez and Planchuelo, 2003). This ethnomedical system, which includes home medicine, is commonly referred to as curanderismo (folk medicine is probably the closest expression in English) and as such appears in the NFS. Curanderismo is based on the use of plants and, to a lesser extent, of animals and minerals. This contribution focuses on the study of zootherapeutic remedies, which have been much less addressed in ethnoscience than medicinal plant resources.

Material And Methods

Material

The National Folklore Survey (NFS) of 1921 consists of 3,224 manuscript files (Scarpa and Rosso, 2018), microfilmed and deposited in the Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano, Buenos Aires city, Argentina. For the present study, the microfilm rolls corresponding to the province of Córdoba  (rolls 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15) were used; those rolls gather the information collected from 94 schools in the province created by Law 4874 (Ley Láinez, Ministerio de Educación, Ciencia y Tecnología, 2007).

Each microfilm gathers a set of files corresponding to the reports of several schools (sometimes the information corresponding to a school is mixed with that of other schools), and usually contains the school number, the town and the name of the teacher conducting the survey. Exceptionally, one of the questionnaires was conducted by a female resident, as indicated in the document. As described by Scarpa and Rosso (2018) for other provinces, in the rolls corresponding to Córdoba, the length of the files varies from one page to several dozens.

Methods

In the rolls, the data referring to animals were classified by the teachers into the categories "curanderismo" (folk medicine) and "supersticiones” (superstitions). The present work is based on the information gathered under the category “curanderismo”. 

Several species were usually mentioned more than once in each school; however, as the nature of the data made it impossible to determine if each mentioned animal corresponded to different informants, or if all the species were recorded based on the same criteria, we only listed each species once per school.

The data obtained was used to generate a matrix that consisted of the ethnospecies (culturally defined species), its use, the number of schools in which it is mentioned and school identification. Then, a list of animals used in folk medicine was generated from the data matrix, indicating the diversity of uses of each species, their popular name as it was recorded in the NFS, and the inferred scientific name, whenever possible (understanding historical data as a primary source of information, as described in Rosso & Scarpa, 2012). 

Subsequently, a species consensus indicator was obtained for each species by dividing the number of times each species was mentioned by the total number of zootherapeutic products mentioned

The diversity of animals used in zootherapy according NFS was compared with the present uses of zootherapy, using as reference the works of Arias Toledo and Trillo (2014, 2017), which are the only publications that were found to include information about zootherapeutic remedies in the study area.

Finally, the frecuencies of the ailments treated by taxonomic class were obtained.

Involved population 

The involved populations, both past and present, identify themselves as "criollos", i.e., Hispanic mestizo descendants. The defining identity condition of criollos is being livestock producers, mainly of goat and sheep (Cáceres, Silvetti, Ferrer and Soto, 2006; Trillo, Arias Toledo and Colantonio, 2016), and to a lesser extent of cattle and horses; despite the lower production of cattle and horses, these animals have a high symbolic and identity value (Arias Toledo and Trillo 2018). The family economy was always complemented with the sale of products derived from livestock (meat, hides, wool, etc.) and nowadays also with informal jobs.

Study site

Córdoba is a mediterranean province, located in the center of Argentina, with varied geographical regions and an altitudinal range from 400 to almost 3,000 meters above sea level. It belongs to the Chaco phytogeographic region (Cabrera, 1976); a mountain range with various altitudinal belts crosses the central-west zone from north to south, the south is characterized by wooded plains and grass steppes, and the northeast has one of the largest and most diverse wetlands in the world.

Results

The NFS, explicitly aimed at surveying folklore of Criollo origin, reflects the cultural dynamics characteristic of our territory. In this regard, the NFS contains the testimony of the teacher Agenor Soria, head of the School No. 64 of Balnearia, who recounts the difficulty of the requested task, because the Criollos “have been displaced to the forests, and locals made fun of them, they are reluctant to share knowledge”. Then, he adds that "pressed by a patriotic duty, demanded by the authorities, I have had the need to appeal to the knowledge they acquired during childhood" (our translation). Even so, the NFS turned out to be a very rich source of information about oral production (including songs, poems, dances, legends, etc.) and local ethnobiological practices. This contribution addresses the information related to animals and their parts or derived products used for health care.

Table 1 shows the animal species mentioned in the NFS as zootherapeutic products used in "curanderismo". Moreover, the species that are mentioned in published works as of current use in the province of Córdoba are indicated. The table includes 37 animal species (7 of them domestic), parts or derived products, with 66 different uses from a total of 283 records. Of these species, 9 (3 domestic and 6 wild) continue to be used.

The diversity of zootherapeutic uses present in the NFS is observed in Figure 1. The 66 different uses mentioned in the NFS are classified into 13 categories of treated conditions, and that the category "others" includes uses that have only one record, so there are 12 other uses that exceed those listed in the 13 categories shown. All these uses are described in Table 1.

The description of the uses varies in the level of detail, with some of them being clearly explained and others being briefly mentioned. However, a careful analysis is of great interest because the uses clearly reflect the health concerns of that time. Thus, the species used to treat toothache were found to present the greatest redundancy, with seven different species, of dissimilar phyla and classes, indicated for their treatment and/or prevention. We use the concept of redundancy in the sense established by Albuquerque and Oliveira (2007) and Nascimiento et al. (2015), who consider the multiple species used to treat the same illness as a functional redundancy within the local medical system.

Regarding the frequency of used taxa, mammals are the most frequently mentioned (Figure 2), accounting for 37% of the records, followed by birds (29%), invertebrates (23%), reptiles (8%) and amphibians (3%). In this regard, interestingly, among the four species with the highest consensus –with two- or three-fold the number of records of the species immediately below in terms of number of citations (Table 1) – there is only one mammal, followed by the only amphibian and two of the three reptiles recorded in the NFS.

Discusion

The NFS explicitly states in its introduction that it is aimed at the survey of knowledge of Creole (“Criollo”) origin, a social group that identifies itself as livestock producers (Arias Toledo and Trillo, 2018). This condition of ranchers models the selection of zootherapeutic remedies, incorporating livestock and domestic species in their preferences. Souto et al. (2011) point out that Latin American mestizo populations combine the use of domestic fauna of European origin –which was important during the occupation stage of colonized territories- with native species. The use of domestic animals as a source of medicines seems to be a constant feature in Europe, at least in the Mediterranean area, the origin area of most migrants from the study area. Quave and Pieroni (2013) suggest that such a preponderance is due to the easy access to such products, and show continuity of certain practices, which were documented in ancient texts. In this regard, practices such as the treatment of dog bites with burned hair and the use of “talismans” of their teeth to prevent bites, or the treatment of snake bites with human feces were not only described for current Mediterranean populations (Pieroni and Quave, 2005), but also already part of Dioscorides' De Materia Medica (Quave and Pieroni, 2013). Likewise, the use of horse and donkey feces was mentioned for past and present populations in Spain (Vallejo and González, 2014), and was also related to the “Greek humoral theory”, magical thinking and the ideological-symbolic system of Hispanic populations. However, González and Vallejo (2014) propose that the transfer of knowledge has been more related to healing techniques and treatments than to species. All this suggests continuity in time –throughout 2000 years of history– and European origin of some medicinal practices, probably those that involve domestic animals.

Of the zootherapeutic resources mentioned in the NFS for Córdoba and those currently used (Arias Toledo and Trillo 2014, 2017) in the province, 75% and 67%, respectively, are from wild animals (Table 1), showing that such knowledge combines both part of historical European origin, as previously described, with elements of Native American cultures (Idoyaga Molina 2000).

Among the elements with origin in native cultures, interestingly, the practice of introducing a sick child into the still warm womb of a recently slaughtered cow coincides exactly with the treatment described for the "aicado" or "aicadura" in Andean medicine (Crivos et al., 2007). While the NFS did not provide a precise description of the ailment that required such treatment –it only indicated that it was applied to "tullido"(crippled) children–, in Andean medicine it is described in greater depth as a therapy applied to children who "become very skinny”, usually accompanied by diarrhea and febrile syndromes (Crivos et al., 2007; Abeledo, 2017) and with difficulties in walking (Chávez Hernández and Rubio Rivera, 2004) –which can be related to the term“tullido” used in the NFS. In turn, while for Andean medicine, the "aicado" is related to a misconduct of the pregnant mother or with an infant who passes near a cemetery, attends a wake or funeral, and causes a "mental" ailment to her child (Crivos et al., 2007; Abeledo, 2017), for Western medicine this disease corresponds to severe malnutrition (Chávez Hernández and Rubio Rivera, 2004). These examples show how these human groups adapted to the existing biological resources, generating valuable local ethnobiological knowledge, as proposed for other mestizo peoples in Latin America (Souto el al. 2011). These observations agree with previous studies (Alves and Rosa 2006, 2007) that demonstrated that the diversity of medicinal animals used by human populations is influenced by animal diversity in the region. Both the indigenous contribution and the use of local diversity were here confirmed in the 21 coincidences found in the uses in phytogeographically and culturally similar areas (Di Lullo, 2016 (reissue of the original from 1929)).

This dynamics of ethnobiological knowledge, which allows us to trace ancestral knowledge from other continents or other geographical areas, and to verify local adaptations, shows current continuity of uses, even in minor aspects such as the use of identical techniques for the treatment of toothaches with toads or chicken fat. Thus, we see continuity in the use of zootherapies for the same purposes, in the same area, by inhabitants of the same cultural tradition –both the NFS and the current articles address the "Criollo" culture– reflecting a continuity of certain medical practices.

Nevertheless, the amount of zootherapeutic products currently used in the province of Córdoba is notoriously lower than that recorded in the NFS for the same area, unlike the amount of herbal remedies (Trillo et al., 2010, 2019). This phenomenon may be explained by several factors, from a current negative moral assessment of the use of animals –society perceives animals as “closer” to them (and even humanized) than plants–, which discourages their use, to under-registration of zootherapies, which have been scarcely addressed by ethnobiological research with respect to phytotherapeutics (Alves and Alves, 2011; Souto et al. 2011).

The great diversity of ailments treated with zootherapeutic products is a clear example of the importance of these resources for these past populations. At a time when access to health care was difficult, especially in rural communities, people evidently developed close interactions with nature, often also associated with economic dependence on local natural resources, as proposed by Alves and Alves (2011). Thus, they developed alternative medicinal systems. Among the treated ailments, the degree of redundancy of species used for the treatment of toothaches stands out. The "dermatological" and "respiratory" uses show values close to ​​ and even higher than remedies used for toothache; however, unlike toothaches, those categories encompass very diverse ailments (from burns to warts and from colds to pneumonia). The degree of redundancy of species indicated for the treatment of toothaches can be explained by considering that, while other ailments do not cause major discomfort (e.g. warts or "testes"), evolve even without treatment (e.g. gastrointestinal disorders, colds, etc.) or have a low prevalence (e.g. animal bites), toothaches may have been highly frequent in populations with poor oral hygiene habits, are extremely painful and symtpoms tend to become worse rather than relieved. A similar situation occurs with osteo-arthro-muscular inflammatory processes, which follow toothaches in terms of redundancy. Since toothaches and rheumatism are slow processes that do not pose immediate risk to life, their treatment may have allowed experimentation, and may have resulted in a considerable improvement of life quality.

Finally, mammals and birds were (according NFS) and still are (Alves and Alves, 2011; Arias Toledo, 2014; Hanazaki, Alves and Begossi, 2009; Martínez, 2013) the taxa that include the largest number of species mentioned as used. This result may be explained by the fact that most domestic animals are mammals or birds, and selection of species may have been related to theconspicuousness, abundance or accessibility of each animal group. Interestingly, although amphibians and reptiles are the taxa with the fewest species mentioned, they include three of the species with the highest use consensus. In the case of reptiles, fats are usually the main extracted medicinal product in South America (Costa Neto, 1999; Moura and Marques, 2008; Hanazaki et al., 2009; Cunha Ribeiro et al., 2010). Hanazaki et al. (2009) state that the use of fats for medicinal purposes was originated in Europe, which would explain its persistance in populations of mestizo origin such as the one studied. The case of the toad is particularly interesting, since it is the only amphibian with clearly symbolic uses and which, as indicated in the NFS, "is an animal that inspires a lot of respect, one could almost say a sacred animal" (our translation). The widespread use of the toad with magical/symbolic value, as well as of other animals or animal parts, such as cricket legs to help children walk, amulets of dog teeth to prevent bites, rhea tendons for children to walk, among others, is included in the ideological dimension (Marques, 2009) of zootherapy. Thus, as stated by Jones Sánchez (2019), popular knowledge is the result not only of cultural representations, but also of daily experiences –and, in our opinion, also of historical processes; individuals elaborate knowledge in a process of multiple interactions with the environment, fueled by their own and other people's experiences.

Conclusions

The diversity of involved species of different origins, the heterogeneity of possible uses and the multiple dimensions involved reflect a highly complex ethnomedical system that is related not only to local biodiversity, but also to the history of the peoples. Thus, zootherapeutic practices can be considered key elements of cultural syncretism and a clear reflection of the indissoluble relationships of rural populations with their environment. Paying as much attention to them as has historically been devoted to the use of medicinal plants is likely to enrich our view of the daily life of current and past rural communities.

Declarations

Acknowledgement

We thank Instituto Nacional de Antropología y Pensamiento Latinoamericano for allowing access to files.

Funding

This work was partially founded by Secretaría de Ciencia y Tecnología (SECyT) of the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba.

Availability of data and materials

The data supporting the results are presented in the table of the article. More details can be requested of the corresponding author.

Contributions

BAT and CT initiated and structured the project. BAT and CT collected the data and BAT analyzed it. BAT led the writing. BAT and CT read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bárbara Arias Toledo – [email protected] 

Author information

Bárbara Arias Toledo

Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV – CONICET), Córdoba, Argentina – Cátedra de Antropología Biológica y Cultural – Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299 – X5000JJC – Córdoba, Argentina

Cecilia Trillo

Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV – CONICET), Córdoba, Argentina – Cátedra de Diversidad Ecológica III - Av. Vélez Sarsfield 299 – X5000JJC – Córdoba, Argentina

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All participants were asked for their free prior informed consent before interviews were conducted.

Consent for publication

Oral informed consent was obtained from the interviewees or their parents for the publication of this report.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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