Demographic and Socio-Economic Characteristics of the respondents
The majority (59.3%) of the respondents were females. The female dominance could be explained by the traditional role of women, as household managers hence are responsible for the day-to-day administration/management of processing food. The study revealed that 41.3% of the respondents had no level of formal education. This demonstrates a low educational background among the respondents. The likely explanation for this is that the informal sector is characterized by free entry and exit hence allow people with low educational levels to engage in informal economic activities. This in a way affects their understanding of vital occupational health and safety issues.
Table 1: Demographic and Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
Variables
|
Category
|
n=172
|
Percentage
|
Gender
|
Male
Female
|
70
102
|
40.7
59.3
|
Education
|
None
Basic School
Secondary/Vocational
Tertiary
|
71
68
28
5
|
41.3
39.5
16.3
2.9
|
Work Experience (years)
|
Below 2
|
3
|
1.6
|
|
2-4
|
32
|
18.6
|
|
5-7
|
31
|
18.0
|
|
8-10
|
10
|
5.8
|
|
Above 11
|
96
|
55.8
|
Total Income (GHS)
|
Below 500
|
11
|
6.4
|
|
500-1000
|
161
|
93.6
|
The majority (55.8%) of the respondents indicated they had worked in the bakery industry for more than 11 years. The higher work experience of the respondents could have implications on the study as most of them would be able to bring to light their exposure to occupational hazards. The study revealed that the majority of the respondents earned between 500 and 1,000 Ghana Cedis (1 USD = 4.97 GHS as at 31 January 2019) on monthly basis (see Table 1).
Exposure to Occupational Hazards
Bakers are exposed to biological, physical, ergonomic, chemical and psychosocial hazards. Bakers’ provided information on their exposure to occupational health and safety hazards, the sources of the hazards and strategies adopted to minimize the effects.
Exposure to Physical Hazards
Physical hazards discussed are grouped into noise, smoke/dust, temperature (heat from the oven) and fire.
Noise
The bakery environment involves flour milling and mixing by using machines such as a dough-kneading machine, turbo sifters, mixer, roll plant and hand tray for shaping the edible dough. This shows that dough mixers are always exposed to noise once they start kneading the flour. From the survey, all dough mixers were exposed to noise because of their activity.
The dough mixers disclosed that they did not feel comfortable wearing ear protective devices. However, further discussions with them revealed that they did not know the importance of using ear protective devices during their operation. When asked to rate their noise exposure, 75 percent of mixers rated their exposure as very high (above 85Db) (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Rating of noise by dough mixers
Strategies against the Noise
In preventing the effects associated with noise, none of the employees had a structural or mechanical modification such as earplugs, mufflers, and noise protection enclosures, which provide a noise reduction.
Dust/Smoke
Flour dust is associated with employees who are engaged in mixing the dough. It appeared from the survey that, all dough mixers were exposed to flour dust. Among the dough mixers; runny nose, excessive cough, wheezing, irritation of the eye and respiratory problems were some effects resulting from flour dust. This implies that dough mixers are likely to suffer from chronic pulmonary diseases such as bronchial asthma in the long term.
Table 2: Effects of flour dust reported by dough mixers
*Effects
|
No.
|
%
|
Runny nose
|
16
|
25
|
Excessive cough
|
16
|
25
|
Wheezing
|
16
|
25
|
Irritation of the eye
|
16
|
25
|
Total
|
64
|
100
|
*Multiple responses
Figure 2: Control measures adopted against inhalation of flour dust
Control measures adopted by bakers to protect themselves from the effect of the flour dust included: having active ventilation (88%) and the use of handkerchief (12 percent) (Figure 2). The dough mixers did not use the nose mask because it was uncomfortable during breathing. Others indicated that it was difficult to see when wearing the nose mask, which could result in an injury.
The survey revealed that 92 percent of the employers used traditional ovens to bake bread and pastries because it was cheaper to purchase fuelwood. All oven bakers and 97 percent of pan cleaners were exposed to smoke because of the fuelwood. Materials such as metal or wood slates and sacks were used to cover the oven during the burning of the fuelwood. The oven bakers checked on frequently to ensure that all the logs placed in the oven were burnt. Notwithstanding, pan cleaners were exposed to smoke because they were required to clean, grease and pack the baking pans at the same compound. From the survey, two percent of the employers had created chimneys to direct the smoke away from the baking space.
Table 3: Exposure to Smoke by Bakers
Variable
|
Employers
|
Employees
|
Total for employees
|
|
Pan cleaners
|
Oven bakers
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
Exposed to smoke
|
Yes
|
19
|
49
|
38
|
97
|
39
|
100
|
77
|
99
|
No
|
20
|
51
|
1
|
3
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
Sub-total
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
100
|
78
|
100
|
*Effects of smoke
|
Itching of the eye
|
18
|
33
|
38
|
27
|
39
|
25
|
77
|
26
|
Excessive cough
|
14
|
26
|
38
|
27
|
38
|
24
|
76
|
26
|
Wheezing
|
12
|
22
|
38
|
27
|
38
|
24
|
76
|
25
|
Stuffy nose
|
10
|
19
|
25
|
19
|
42
|
27
|
67
|
23
|
Sub-total
|
54
|
100
|
139
|
100
|
157
|
100
|
296
|
100
|
*Measures adopted
|
Staying away from fire
|
16
|
35
|
33
|
46
|
36
|
43
|
69
|
45
|
Frequent break
|
2
|
4
|
3
|
4
|
23
|
27
|
26
|
17
|
Adjustment of ovens
|
4
|
9
|
0
|
0
|
12
|
14
|
12
|
8
|
Working in an open space
|
16
|
35
|
31
|
44
|
9
|
11
|
40
|
25
|
Active ventilation
|
4
|
9
|
3
|
4
|
2
|
3
|
5
|
3
|
Nothing is done
|
2
|
4
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
1
|
2
|
1
|
Chimney provided for the oven
|
2
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
1
|
Sub-total
|
46
|
100
|
71
|
100
|
84
|
100
|
155
|
100
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
*Multiple responses
Exposure to smoke resulted in occupational diseases such as rhinitis, excessive cough and wheezing resulting in breathlessness. The smoke also results in residential hazards since the activities are carried out in a residential environment where people live. The smoky environment was seen as a normal issue since they use fuelwood.
Strategies Adopted Against Smoke
The strategies respondents have adopted against smoke include staying away from fire, frequent break, working in an open space, active ventilation and adjustments of ovens (Table 3).
Fire hazard
The use of fire is predominate in the baking environment since fuelwood is the main source of energy for the baking of bread and pastries. All oven bakers interviewed disclosed that they were exposed to fire hazards. Employers (63 percent) and employees (74 percent) rated exposure to fire hazards as very high. About 41 percent of employers indicated that they did get close to the fire when they wanted to check if the ovens were hot and whether the bread had been well baked. Both employers and oven bakers sustained burns because they used their hands in lifting hot baking pans from the oven.
Figure 3: Measures adopted against fire hazard
Measures Adopted Against Fire Hazards
The most frequent measure adopted by employers and employees to fight against fire hazard was the use of a wooden and metallic peel to place and remove bread from the oven as well as regulate the fire in the oven. Surprisingly, some employers used hand gloves to hold the wooden and metallic peel to prevent burns from the hot oven (Figure 3). Employees, on the other hand, commented that the use of hand gloves made it difficult to work with the peels since they had to remove the baked bread from the oven.
Notwithstanding the effects of fire, out of the 12 employers who are members of Ghana Flour Users Association, eight of them had purchased fire extinguishers at their workplaces. Employers indicated that the process for acquiring them was cumbersome and expensive.
High Temperature
The high temperature indicated was related to fire from the oven. About 53 percent and 59 percent of employers and employees claimed their exposure to high temperature from the ovens as very uncomfortable. According to Avula et al. [17], the standard temperature at the baking premises should be between 550C - 600C. Among the effects reported by employees were burns, scalds, fainting, and dizziness that recorded 33 percent, 23 percent, five percent, and 39 percent respectively. Employers also sustained burns (80 percent), (seven percent) scalds because of their exposure to the hot ovens.
Strategies employed to control high temperature
Strategies were however adopted to help curb the exposure of bakers to the effects of high temperature. Strategies ranged from physical barriers (use of metallic or wood sacks to cover the oven), manual regulation (by removing excess fire from the oven with a peel), rest breaks and staying hydrated were adopted by both employers and employees (Table 4).
Table 4: Effects and strategies adopted against high temperature
Variables
|
Employer
|
Employees
|
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
*Exposure to effects of high temperature
|
Burns
|
36
|
80
|
28
|
33
|
Fainting
|
0
|
0
|
4
|
5
|
Scalds
|
3
|
7
|
20
|
23
|
Dizziness
|
6
|
13
|
34
|
39
|
Sub-total
|
45
|
100
|
86
|
100
|
*Strategies
|
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
Physical barriers
|
34
|
47
|
39
|
28
|
Rest breaks
|
31
|
42
|
39
|
28
|
Manual regulations
|
0
|
0
|
39
|
28
|
Staying hydrated
|
8
|
11
|
24
|
16
|
Total
|
73
|
100
|
141
|
100
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
*Multiple responses
Exposure to Biological Hazard
All dough mixers complained of being exposed to mosquitoes (34 percent), insects (34 percent) and rodents (32 percent), this is because ingredients such as flour, wheat, margarine, and sugar were kept in their working room. Oven bakers were least (21 percent) exposed to mosquito bites because of the extreme temperature from the oven. However, slicers who mostly started their work between the hours of 4 pm to 10 pm were exposed to mosquito bites (95 percent) (see Table 5).
Table 5: Exposure of Bakers to Biological hazard and Control Measures Adopted
Variable
|
Employer
|
Employees
|
Total for employees
|
|
Pan Cleaners
|
Slicers
|
Oven bakers
|
Mixers
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
*Exposure
|
Mosquitoes
|
25
|
83.0
|
39
|
87.0
|
37
|
80.0
|
8
|
89.0
|
16
|
34.0
|
100
|
69.0
|
Insects
|
5
|
17.0
|
6
|
13.0
|
6
|
13.0
|
1
|
11.0
|
16
|
34.0
|
29
|
20.0
|
Rodents
|
0
|
0.0
|
0
|
0.0
|
0
|
0.0
|
0
|
0.0
|
15
|
32.0
|
15
|
11.0
|
Subtotal
|
30
|
100
|
45
|
100
|
43
|
100
|
9
|
100
|
47
|
100
|
144
|
100
|
*Effects of exposure
|
Malaria
|
27
|
75.0
|
42
|
89.0
|
38
|
95.0
|
8
|
100.0
|
17
|
51.5
|
105
|
82.0
|
Physical weakness
|
9
|
25.0
|
5
|
11.0
|
2
|
5.0
|
0
|
0.0
|
16
|
48.5
|
23
|
18.0
|
Subtotal
|
36
|
100
|
47
|
100
|
40
|
100
|
8
|
100
|
33
|
100
|
128
|
100
|
*Control measures
|
Wearing long-sleeved clothes
|
21
|
48.8
|
39
|
50.0
|
39
|
50.0
|
8
|
50.0
|
16
|
61.5
|
102
|
52.0
|
Use of mosquito repellents, coil
|
22
|
51.0
|
39
|
50.0
|
39
|
50.0
|
8
|
50.0
|
10
|
38.4
|
96
|
48.0
|
Subtotal
|
43
|
100
|
78
|
100
|
78
|
100
|
16
|
100
|
26
|
100
|
198
|
100
|
*Multiple responses
The predominant effect of bakers' exposure to biological hazards was malaria (Table 7).
Strategies employed to control their exposure to Biological Hazards
To protect themselves from mosquito bites bakers resulted in wearing long-sleeved clothes and the use of mosquito repellent and coil. Another method adopted by bakers was the use of burning orange peels gathered from an orange seller, others also resorted to drinking "Dr. Ceaser Lina Energy Tea" as a remedy to prevent malaria.
Exposure to Psychosocial Hazard
Stress (workload), verbal abuse and poor interpersonal relationship are some types of psychosocial hazards reported. About 90 percent of employers indicated that their work was stressful since they worked more than 12 hours daily. These results in injuries, low productivity, absenteeism and poor concentration at work (Table 6). This contributes to a stressful and an unfriendly work environment.
Table 6: Exposure of Bakers to Psychosocial hazard
Variable
|
Employers
|
Employees
|
Total for employees
|
|
|
Pan cleaners
|
Slicers
|
Oven bakers
|
Mixers
|
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
*Types
|
Stress
|
39
|
100.0
|
39
|
41.0
|
39
|
54.9
|
39
|
38.0
|
16
|
100.0
|
133
|
47.0
|
Poor interpersonal relationship
|
0
|
0.0
|
34
|
36.0
|
24
|
33.8
|
31
|
31.0
|
0
|
0
|
89
|
31.0
|
Verbal abuse
|
0
|
0.0
|
22
|
23.0
|
8
|
11.3
|
31
|
31.0
|
0
|
0
|
61
|
22.0
|
Sub-total
|
39
|
100
|
95
|
100
|
71
|
100
|
101
|
100
|
16
|
100
|
283
|
100
|
*Effects
|
Low productivity
|
33
|
58
|
31
|
49.0
|
33
|
63.5
|
28
|
33.7
|
16
|
100
|
108
|
50.0
|
Poor concentration
|
12
|
21
|
14
|
22.0
|
7
|
13.5
|
20
|
24.0
|
0
|
0
|
41
|
19.0
|
Injuries
|
0
|
0
|
9
|
14.0
|
2
|
3.8
|
28
|
33.7
|
0
|
0
|
39
|
18.0
|
Absenteeism
|
8
|
14
|
7
|
11.0
|
5
|
9.6
|
3
|
3.6
|
0
|
0
|
15
|
7.0
|
Presenteeism
|
4
|
7
|
2
|
4.0
|
5
|
9.6
|
4
|
5.0
|
0
|
0
|
11
|
6.0
|
Sub-total
|
57
|
100
|
63
|
100
|
52
|
100
|
83
|
100
|
16
|
100
|
214
|
100
|
*Strategies adopted
|
Showing respect
|
39
|
39.0
|
39
|
41.0
|
39
|
35.0
|
39
|
37.0
|
16
|
34.0
|
133
|
37
|
Report of dispute
|
39
|
39.0
|
39
|
41.0
|
39
|
35.0
|
39
|
37.0
|
16
|
34.0
|
133
|
37
|
Reduce work hours
|
23
|
22.0
|
18
|
18.0
|
33
|
30.0
|
28
|
26.0
|
15
|
32.0
|
94
|
26
|
Sub-total
|
101
|
100
|
96
|
100
|
111
|
100
|
106
|
100
|
47
|
100
|
360
|
100
|
*Multiple responses
These psychosocial hazards affect workers and their families as well as their jobs since sickness is related to loss of productivity and hence low incomes.
Strategies against Psychosocial Hazard
Employers adopted strategies such as showing respect at the workplace (39 percent), reduction in work hours (22 percent) and settling of dispute among employees (39 percent) to reduce psychosocial hazards at the workplace (Table 8).
Exposure to Chemical Hazard
About 72 percent of pan cleaners were exposed to chemical hazards because they used bleach and “Azuma blow” to clean and wash napkins after baking. The perceived effects of the chemical hazard were mainly whitlow (44 percent) and irritation of the eye (56 percent) (Table 7).
Table 7: Exposure of Pan Cleaners to Chemical hazard
Variable
|
Employees (Pan cleaners)
|
|
No.
|
%
|
*Effects
|
Irritation of the eye
|
28
|
56.0
|
Whitlow
|
22
|
44.0
|
Subtotal
|
50
|
100
|
Rating of exposure
|
Very High
|
25
|
89.0
|
High
|
3
|
11.0
|
Subtotal
|
28
|
100
|
*Multiple responses
Due to the chemicals used in the preparation of the local soap “Azuma blow” cleaners, develop whitlow and parts of their skin peel off.
Exposure to Ergonomic Hazard
Bakers assumed working postures such as standing, sitting and bending which were done repetitively. Pan cleaners (100 percent), slicers (100 percent) stood for less than two hours because their activity required them to sit for close to seven hours each day. Sitting, standing, bending and lifting of heavy equipment for a longer period led to musculoskeletal disorders such as lower back pain, shoulder pain, and pain in the hand (see Table 8).
Table 8: Exposure of Bakers to Ergonomic hazard
Variable
|
Employers
|
Employees
|
Total for employees
|
|
Pan cleaners
|
Slicers
|
Oven bakers
|
Mixers
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
No.
|
%
|
*Effects
|
Lower back pain
|
39
|
20
|
39
|
26
|
39
|
24
|
39
|
20
|
16
|
20
|
133
|
23
|
Shoulder pain
|
39
|
20
|
39
|
27
|
39
|
24
|
39
|
20
|
16
|
20
|
133
|
23
|
Neck pain
|
39
|
20
|
39
|
27
|
39
|
24
|
39
|
20
|
16
|
20
|
133
|
23
|
Pain in the hand
|
39
|
20
|
14
|
10
|
39
|
24
|
39
|
20
|
16
|
20
|
108
|
19
|
Muscle spasm and pain in the leg
|
39
|
20
|
14
|
10
|
7
|
4
|
39
|
20
|
16
|
20
|
76
|
12
|
Subtotal
|
195
|
100
|
145
|
100
|
163
|
100
|
195
|
100
|
80
|
100
|
583
|
100
|
Rating of exposure
|
Very high
|
39
|
100
|
20
|
51.2
|
25
|
64.1
|
31
|
79.5
|
14
|
87.5
|
90
|
68
|
High
|
0
|
0
|
19
|
48.8
|
14
|
35.9
|
8
|
20.5
|
2
|
12.5
|
43
|
32
|
Subtotal
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
100
|
16
|
100
|
133
|
100
|
*Control measures
|
Proper lifting
|
N/A
|
20
|
20.4
|
0
|
0
|
31
|
28.4
|
16
|
34
|
67
|
23
|
Continuous change in work posture
|
39
|
39.8
|
0
|
0
|
39
|
35.8
|
16
|
34
|
94
|
32
|
Mini breaks
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
39.8
|
39
|
100
|
39
|
35.8
|
15
|
32.0
|
132
|
45
|
Sub-total
|
39
|
100
|
98
|
100
|
39
|
100
|
109
|
100
|
47
|
100
|
293
|
100
|
*Multiple responses
The muscles around the joints are subjected to tension. These could lead to low productivity among bakers and hence reduced incomes and profits on the side of employers.
Strategies Adopted Against Ergonomic Hazard
The prevalence of ergonomic hazard was controlled by ensuring proper lifting, continuous change in work posture and adhering to mini-breaks (Table 8). Moving large baking trays and tins of flour dough from the mixer room to the bakery poses many health risks. They are usually heavy and bulky.