[1] American Diabetes Association. Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2018. Diabetes Care 2018; 41: 14–37.
[2] Cosentino F, Grant PJ, Aboyans V, et al. 2019 ESC Guidelines on diabetes, pre-diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases developed in collaboration with the EASD. Eur Heart J 2020; 41: 255–323.
[3] Schlender L, Martinez Y V., Adeniji C, et al. Efficacy and safety of metformin in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus in older adults: A systematic review for the development of recommendations to reduce potentially inappropriate prescribing. BMC Geriatrics; 17. Epub ahead of print October 16, 2017. DOI: 10.1186/s12877-017-0574-5.
[4] Gong L, Goswami S, Giacomini KM, et al. Metformin pathways. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2012; 22: 820–827.
[5] Kinaan M, Ding H, Triggle CR. Metformin: An Old Drug for the Treatment of Diabetes but a New Drug for the Protection of the Endothelium. Medical Principles and Practice 2015; 24: 401–415.
[6] Yan Y, L. Kover K, V. Moore W. New Insight into Metformin Mechanism of Action and Clinical Application. In: Metformin [Working Title]. IntechOpen. Epub ahead of print March 20, 2020. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.91148.
[7] Rena G, Hardie DG, Pearson ER. The mechanisms of action of metformin. Diabetologia 2017; 60: 1577–1585.
[8] Wang Y, An H, Liu T, et al. Metformin Improves Mitochondrial Respiratory Activity through Activation of AMPK. Cell Rep 2019; 29: 1511–1523.e5.
[9] Garcia D, Shaw RJ. AMPK: mechanisms of cellular energy sensing and restoration of metabolic balance Daniel. Mol Cell 2017; 66: 789–800.
[10] Meng S, Cao J, He Q, et al. Metformin activates AMP-activated protein kinase by promoting formation of the αβγheterotrimeric complex. J Biol Chem 2015; 290: 3393–3802.
[11] Agius L, Ford BE, Chachra SS. The metformin mechanism on gluconeogenesis and AMPK activation: The metabolite perspective. Int J Mol Sci; 21. Epub ahead of print 2020. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21093240.
[12] Srivastava RAK, Pinkosky SL, Filippov S, et al. AMP-activated protein kinase: An emerging drug target to regulate imbalances in lipid and carbohydrate metabolism to treat cardio-metabolic diseases. Journal of Lipid Research 2012; 53: 2490–2514.
[13] Fullerton MD, Galic S, Marcinko K, et al. Single phosphorylation sites in Acc1 and Acc2 regulate lipid homeostasis and the insulin-sensitizing effects of metformin. Nat Med 2013; 19: 1649–1654.
[14] Rashid M, Shahzad M, Mahmood S, et al. Variability in the therapeutic response of metformin treatment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pakistan J Med Sci 2019; 35: 71–76.
[15] Zhang J, Wang N, Xing X, et al. Factors that influence the efficacy of acarbose and metformin as initial therapy in Chinese patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: A subanalysis of the MARCH trial. Curr Med Res Opin 2016; 32: 713–719.
[16] Ko S-H, Rhee SY, Kim HJ, et al. Monotherapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Korean J Intern Med Korean J Intern Med 2005; 32: 959–966.
[17] Franks PW, Pearson E, Florez JC. Gene-environment and gene-treatment interactions in type 2 diabetes: Progress, pitfalls, and prospects. Diabetes Care 2013; 36: 1413–1421.
[18] Yoon H, Cho H-Y, Yoo H-D, et al. Influences of Organic Cation Transporter Polymorphisms on the Population Pharmacokinetics of Metformin in Healthy Subjects. AAPS J 2013; 15: 571–580.
[19] Malodobra-Mazur M, Bednarska-Chabowska D, Olewinski R, et al. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in 5′-UTR of the SLC2A4 gene regulate solute carrier family 2 member 4 gene expression in visceral adipose tissue. Gene 2016; 576: 499–504.
[20] Dawed AY, Zhou K, Pearson ER. Pharmacogenetics in type 2 diabetes: influence on response to oral hypoglycemic agents. Pharmgenomics Pers Med 2016; 9: 17–29.
[21] Li Q, Li C, Li H, et al. Effect of AMP-activated protein kinase subunit alpha 2 (PRKAA2) genetic polymorphisms on susceptibility to type 2 diabetes mellitus and diabetic nephropathy in a Chinese population: PRKAA2. J Diabetes 2018; 10: 43–49.
[22] Shen J-Z, Ge W-H, Fang Y, et al. A novel polymorphism in protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 2 ( PRKAA2 ) is associated with type 2 diabetes in the Han Chinese population. J Diabetes 2017; 9: 606–612.
[23] Jablonski KA, McAteer JB, de Bakker PIW, et al. Common Variants in 40 Genes Assessed for Diabetes Incidence and Response to Metformin and Lifestyle Intervention in the Diabetes Prevention Program. Diabetes 2010; 59: 2672–2681.
[24] Hirst JA, Farmer AJ, Ali R, et al. Quantifying the Effect of Metformin Treatment and Dose on Glycemic Control. Diabetes Care; 35. Epub ahead of print 2012. DOI: 10.2337/dc11-1465.
[25] Spencer-Jones NJ, Ge D, Snieder H, et al. AMP-kinase alpha2 subunit gene PRKAA2 variants are associated with total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol in normal women. J Med Genet 2006; 43: 936–42.
[26] Szkudelski T, Szkudelska K. The relevance of AMP-activated protein kinase in insulin-secreting β cells: a potential target for improving β cell function? Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry 2019; 75: 423–432.
[27] Musi N, Hirshman MF, Nygren J, et al. Metformin Increases AMP-Activated Protein Kinase Activity in Skeletal Muscle of Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes 2002; 51: 2074–2081.
[28] Sun MW, Lee JY, De Bakker PIW, et al. Haplotype structures and large-scale association testing of the 5′ AMP-activated protein kinase genes PRKAA2, PRKAB1, and PRKAB1 with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2006; 55: 849–855.
[29] Jablonski KA, McAteer JB, De Bakker PIW, et al. Common variants in 40 genes assessed for diabetes incidence and response to metformin and lifestyle intervention in the diabetes prevention program. Diabetes 2010; 59: 2672–2681.
[30] Namipashaki A, Razaghi-Moghadam Z, Ansari-Pour N. The essentiality of reporting Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium calculations in population-based genetic association studies. Cell Journal 2015; 17: 187–192.