3.1. Faba bean farmers’ variety identification
Thirty six respondents (18 male and 18 female) of faba bean growing farmers from each agroecology (M3 and SH3) participated in the interview having different age ranges. The age of respondents ranged from 18 to over 60, and the greatest number of informants were between the ages of 31 to 45 years. Farmers have developed traditional naming systems for faba bean varieties they grow in both SH3 and M3 production areas. Based on the names and descriptions given by farmers, eight faba bean farmers’ varieties were identified (Table 2.1). These farmers’ varieties varied in seed size, colour, maturity, yield potential, and other agronomic traits. The names given by the farmers are also related to those characters. For example, of the eight local names given by the farmers the names Baqela Faranji and Baqela Habasha were referred to their seed colour as they were cream and brown, respectively. Batte refers to multiple traits describing the seed shape and size as flat and very big, respectively. Dabale name was related with its high yielding capacity. Dhera refers to the crops morphology related to its growth habit as it grows tall. Hadho is the name given to the faba bean farmers’ variety that was cultivated for long period of time and transferred from generation to generation and experienced a long cultivation history in the farming society. Very small size is the characteristic feature of the name Bukuri that one key informant described as this farmers’ variety has as similar taste as that of field pea. The name Safisa refers to relatively early maturing faba bean farmers’ variety and two key informants said that it matures in 90 days.
Table 2.1. Name of faba bean farmers’ variety, images, and collection site in 2017 and 2018, east Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia
NB: AEZ = Agro-ecological zone, SH3 = tepid sub-humid mid highlands, M3 = tepid moist mid highlands
Table 2.2
Name of faba bean farmers’ variety, identification criteria, and uses in 2017 and 2018, east Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia
No
|
Local name
|
Identifying character
|
Advantages reported
|
Seed size
|
Culinary uses
|
Non-culinary uses
|
1
|
Baqela Faranji
|
Seed colour (cream)
|
Higher yield, pest resistant
|
Big
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel
|
2
|
Baqela Habasha
|
Seed colour (light brown)
|
Very good taste
|
Medium
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel
|
3
|
Batte
|
Shape
(flat)
|
Big size and good for eating alone
|
Very big
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel
|
4
|
Dabale
|
Medium size seed
|
Higher yield, pest resistant
|
Small
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel
|
5
|
Bukuri
|
Small seed and plant height
|
Very good taste like field pea
|
Very small
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel
|
6
|
Hadho
|
Seed is big and grow tall height
|
Good for fuli, ashuqi, nifiro
|
Big
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel, soil fertility
|
7
|
Dhera
|
The plant height is very tall
|
Soil fertility, animal feeding
|
Big (Cream)
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel, soil fertility
|
8
|
Safisa
|
Seed colour (cream)
|
Soil fertility, early maturing
|
Medium
|
Shiro, Ashuqi, vegetable
|
Fodder, fuel, soil fertility
|
3.2. Faba bean farmers’ varieties distribution and diversity
3.2.1. Distribution of faba bean farmers’ varieties in both agroecologies
Distribution of farmers' varieties across agroecology and in the whole eastern Hararghe Zone was studied for its type of farmers’ varieties grown and the proportion of farmers cultivating the faba bean farmers’ varieties. The types of faba bean farmers’ varieties grown by the farmers of the two agroecologies were different (Figure 2.2). The result of the study indicates that the farmers in M3 agroecology grow more number of faba bean farmers’ varieties than the farmers in SH3 agroecology. Five varieties in SH3 and six varieties in M3 agroecologies were grown by the farmers. Baqela Faranji, Baqela Habasha and Batte were cultivated in both agroecologies of the study area. Dabale and Bukuri were the two varieties only grown in SH3 whereas Hadho, Safisa and Dhera were grown in M3 agroecology only.
In SH3 agroecology, about 53% of the farmers grow Baqela Faranji followed by Baqela Habasha. However, a few farmers (3%) grow Bukuri variety. Majority of the farmers (44%) grow faba bean variety Hadho in M3 agroecology and the lowest numbers of farmers grow Baqela Habasha and Batte (8%). The varieties that were popularly grown by the farmers could be those giving preferred traits in addition to reasonable yield under stress conditions and provide the necessary values for the smallholder households. Asnakech (2014) reported that farmers have some specially preferred traits which may not be considered by breeders stating that 13.4% of the respondents preferred the local landraces for their good biomass, and 19.4% for their resistance to disease and very few respondents (2.4%) preferred the landraces due to the unavailability of improved faba bean varieties.
The proportions of farmers cultivating the documented faba bean farmers’ variety types in both agroecologies were analysed (Figure 2.3). The survey results indicate that farmers in east Hararghe zone grew a total of eight faba bean farmers’ varieties. Among these farmers’ varieties, Baqela faranji was the widely cultivated faba bean farmers’ variety (33%), followed by Hadho (22%) by the interviewed farmers in the study area. Bukuri was the variety cultivated by a few farmers (1%) participated in the interview.
3.2.2. Faba bean farmers’ varieties richness and diversity
The faba bean crop grown in the study area was compared against other legume crops for its interspecific diversity (Figure 2.4). Accordingly, all faba bean growing farmers in both agroecologies also grow majorly fenugreek (75%) in M3 and field pea (66.67%) in SH3 agroecologies. A few farmers (2.78%) grow chick pea in SH3 and 5.56% of the farmers in M3 agroecology grow common bean. Key informants mentioned that fenugreek seed is among the essential seed to prepare the sauce called Hulbeta which is commonly consumed in Hararghe area with injera.
The result of the study indicates that the faba bean farmers’ varieties richness and diversity for each kebele was different (Table 2.3). The number of varieties (varietal richness) per household is the same (1) in all kebeles. The total number of faba bean farmers’ varieties (gamma diversity) was higher (5) in Gara Abdula and Afgug, followed by Efa Jalela (4) in which all kebeles were located in M3 agroecology. However, the varietal richness has slightly lower in SH3 agroecology in which three varieties were recorded in each kebele. The reason for the diversity decline in SH3 agroecology was the substitution of faba bean crop production fields to chat crop areas forced the loss of diversity of faba bean in the area. According to Taye and Aune (2003) reported chat production in Habro district, is rapidly replacing cereal and coffee production fields.
The Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index analysis, the highest value of varietal diversity (Hꞌ = 1.35) was recorded in Gara Abdula kebele of M3 agroecology. The lowest SDI (Hꞌ = 0.81) was recorded from Obi Kutir 1 kebele of SH3 agroecology. Generally, the index values are higher in tepid moist mid highland (M3) and slightly lower in tepid sub-humid highland (SH3) areas. Such low Shannon diversity values in kebeles found under SH3 indicate that most of the area planted to faba bean is dominated by only three number of faba bean varieties having similar varieties. Beside to replacing the faba bean to chat farming land which causes crops declines diversity, the farmers also continue to grow the faba bean variety which best suit to their agroecology putting other varieties aside. Similar report was presented by Mulugeta (2017) where the lowest SDI (0.9) of field pea was recorded for SH3 agroecology compared H3 and M3 agroecologies.
Table 2.3
Varietal richness and diversity of faba bean farmers’ varieties at kebele levels in east Hararghe Zone during 2017 and 2018 cropping season (n = 72, or 12 per kebele)
Agroecology
|
Kebele
|
Total variety listed
|
Varieties per household
|
Diversity index
|
SDI
(Hꞌ)
|
Alpha diversity
|
Gamma diversity
|
Beta
diversity
|
Tepid sub-humid highlands (SH3)
|
Rameta
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
3
|
3
|
1.03
|
Burka Jalela
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
3
|
3
|
0.99
|
Obi Kutir 1
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
3
|
3
|
0.81
|
Tepid moist mid highlands (M3)
|
Gara Abdula
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
5
|
5
|
1.35
|
Efa Jalela
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
4
|
4
|
1.30
|
Afgug
|
12
|
1
|
1
|
5
|
5
|
1.12
|
3.3. Use values of faba bean farmers’ varieties
The respondent farmers in eastern Hararghe zone use faba bean for different purposes (Figure 2.5). The crop is used for food (100%) and as fodder (100%) for their livestock feeding purposes in both selected agroecologies. About 83% of the farmers in M3 and few farmers (3%) in SH3 agroecological zones used faba bean for market purposes. Similarly, 78% of the farmers in M3 and 53% of the farmers in SH3 agroecological zones used the crop as a fuel and 6% of the respondent from SH3 agroecology used faba bean varieties for bee forage. The high protein content of faba bean makes it to be preferred for consumption by the farming communities.
Human consumption (food) value
The respondents revealed the importance of faba bean farmers’ varieties (Figure 2.6a) and ranked variety Bukuri (100%) as the extremely important variety for consumption. The key respondents explained that Bukuri variety was preferred for its taste and used to prepare the best quality wot like field pea. All of them (100%) also ranked Dabale and Dhera varieties as a very important variety. Key informants indicated that different types of foods are prepared from faba bean such as sauces (Kiki and Shiro wot), Shumo (boiled beans), Ashuqi (roasted and boiled), Fuli (split and boiled sauce mainly consumed with bread), and Asheti (raw green) are the major food types that farmers prepared from seed of faba bean. The result from key informants indicated that Baqela Habasha and Bukuri are mostly preferred to prepare Kiki and Shiro wot due to its good taste due to its inherent genetic difference compared to other faba bean farmers’ varieties. The genetic characteristics of faba bean varieties has sufficient variability in carbohydrate, fiber, and protein contents and quality that can determine the taste and cooking qualities for consumption (Gasim et al., 2015). However, all varieties are equally preferred for Shumo, Ashuqi and Asheti. Asnakech et al. (2016) reported that faba bean local landraces were preferred by most of the farmers (64.8%) for their good food quality and better price on the market.
Fodder value
The respondent farmers mentioned the fodder value of faba bean residue obtained after harvest for livestock consumption (Figure 2.6b). About 67% of the respondents reported that Dabale variety was very important for its fodder value followed by Batte (50%) and Safisa (40%). The key informant farmers relate the fodder quality of the varieties with their high biomass production and ease of palatability to the livestock.
Soil fertility management value
The response of farmers for preferred values of faba bean varieties towards soil fertility management was presented in figure 2.6c. All of the respondents preferred variety Batte followed by Baqela Faranji (83%) as they have a very positive effect on soil fertility management in their farm. About 100% respondents responded as the variety Baqela Habasha and Bukuri have only positive effect in soil fertility management role. Faba bean is normally a legume crop capable to fix free nitrogen that increase soil fertility as the expense of the varieties ability to symbiosis with the rhizobia for nodulation. According to the report of Anteneh and Abere (2017), the effectiveness of faba bean nodule in nitrogen fixation depends on the variety of the crop and its ability to symbiosis with the rhizobia found in soil.
Importance for income
The result of the study showed (Figure 2.6d) variety Batte (33%) the extremely important faba bean farmers’ variety fetching high income. All the respondents (100%) equally responded Dabale, Bukuri and Safisa were the very important varieties for their income value. However, a few respondents (8%) and (6%) reported Baqela Habasha and Hadho, respectively, as not so important for their market value. The reasons for the variability of faba bean varieties in market value were the consumers’ preference towards the varieties for its seed size, taste, ease of cooking, tolerant to natural calamities, straw, palatability, and seed storability (Asnakech et al., 2016).
Table 2.4
The combined result of two years average yield and price of faba bean farmers’ varieties in eastern Hararghe Zone (2017 and 2018 cropping season)
No
|
Faba bean varieties
|
Average yield (kg ha-1)
|
Average price (ETB kg-1)
|
1
|
Dabale
|
1900
|
17.33
|
2
|
Baqela Faranji
|
1442.5
|
19.63
|
3
|
Baqela Habasha
|
1264.5
|
21.92
|
4
|
Batte
|
1071
|
29.5
|
5
|
Hadho
|
951.5
|
31.81
|
6
|
Dhera
|
949
|
31
|
7
|
Safisa
|
890.5
|
32.8
|
8
|
Bukuri
|
933.5
|
18
|
The relationship between the average seed yield and average market value in Ethiopian Birr (ETB) of faba bean farmers’ varieties produced in East Hararghe Zone is shown in Table 2.4. The price of one kg of Safisa (32.8 ETB kg−1) variety seed was highest as compared to the other farmers’ varieties seeds obtained from the zone. However, Dabale (17.33 ETB kg−1) and Bukuri (18 ETB gk−1) were the cheapest varieties in the study areas. The low price values in some areas were related with the distance of the producers from consumers in need as the big markets were too far from the potential farming communities producing ample amount of yield.
3.4. Important Attributes of faba bean farmers’ varieties
Important characteristic features of the eight faba bean farmers’ varieties collected from the study area were ranked by the farmers for selected properties (Figure 2.7). The ranking result revealed that all varieties do not produce high yield at times of drought (Figure 2.7a). However, the variety Bukuri produced medium yield; however, Safisa and Baqela Habasha gave very low yield during drought time than other varieties. Faba bean is a cool season crop that requires sufficient moisture to grow and yield high. It has relatively shallow roots, thus the crop may suffer from drought stress in soils that dry quickly (Asnakech et al., 2016). Farmers ranked Bukuri farmers’ variety as the variety relatively sometimes affected by frost followed by Batte (Figure 2.7b). However, Safisa rarely affected and relatively resistance to frost. The ranking result made by farmers’ for resistance to common diseases showed that Batte, Bukuri and Dabale varieties were sometimes affected by common diseases in the study area (Figure 2.7c). Two key informants explained as Safisa and Hadho varieties were the more tolerant varieties to common diseases. This may be due to genetic variation between varieties. Comparison based on taste for human consumption showed that Bukuri and Baqela Habasha are the varieties that have very good taste (Figure 2.7d). Three key informants also explained that Bukuri and Baqela Habasha taste is similar to that of field pea taste and more preferred to prepare wot (Ethiopian sauce). Both varieties also resemble in possessing small seed size and the inherent genetic difference in seed nutrient content of the varieties made them to be very good in taste. According to the report of Gasim et al. (2015), the genetic characteristics of faba bean varieties determine the nutrient constituents in the seed and the taste qualities of the varieties.
3.5. Production and related aspects of faba bean farmers’ varieties
3.5.1. Seed source of the varieties
The respondents grow traditionally obtained faba bean which the farmers handled for long period of time and newly released varieties from research centre and universities on their farm (Figure 2.8a). The survey results indicated that majority of the respondent farmers grow traditional (94%) faba bean farmers’ varieties and only 6% of the respondent farmers grow new faba bean varieties.
Respondent farmers reported that they obtain the seeds of faba bean varieties from different sources such as family, market, neighbours and formal through universities and research centres (Figure 2.8b). About 47% of the farmers obtained the seed of the traditional varieties from their family members like their fathers, uncles, brothers for the first time and 35% of the respondents obtained from market and 13% obtained seeds from their neighbours. Only few (3%) respondents reported as they got new improved variety from the market for the first time and 3% of the respondents mentioned that they got new variety from formal way. This was due to the reason that the farmers’ access to get improved faba bean varieties from formal institutions was very limited. Similar result was reported by Asnakech (2014) that the main source of faba bean seed was farmer to farmer seed exchange as indicated by 42.9% of the respondents, while 27.2% obtained the seed from their parents, 11.6% purchased from the market, and 7.5% of the farmers from Ministry of Agriculture (MoA).
3.5.2. Growing experience and site of plantation
The farmers participated in the interview have been growing different faba bean varieties for a varied years in the study area (Figure 2.9). The result showed that the respondents grown Baqela Faranji (46%), Baqela Habasha (38%), Bukuri (100%), Hadho (20%), and Safisa (56%) faba bean farmers’ varieties for greater than ten years in the study area.
Farmers of the study area participated in this interview reported that planting location and the soil fertility status on which they plant faba bean varieties (Figure 2.10a). According to the respondents, all farmers in Efa Jalela kebele (100%) and most farmers in Burka Jalela kebele (92%) plant faba bean in their main crop fields. About 33% of the respondents planted faba bean in their home gardens in Obi kutir 1 and a small fraction of the interviewed farmers in Gara Abdula (6%) plant faba bean in their field margins.
Farmers in Afgug kebele (83%) and Efa Jalela and Rameta (both 75%) plant faba bean on low fertile soil (Figure 2.10b). On the other hands, in Obi Kutir 1 and Burka Jalela (58%) the respondents reported that they plant faba bean varieties on soil having medium fertility status. None of the farmers interviewed in the study area reported planting of faba bean in high fertile soil. The reason that the farmers use low soil fertility is that faba bean has a capacity to fulfil its nitrate need through fixing free nitrogen from air. Grain legumes grown in poorly fertile fields contributed more net N to the soil and a better potential for net N benefit by growing grain legumes in poorly fertile fields as observed by Kermah et al. (2018).
3.5.3. Area of the farms covered by faba bean
The farmers in eastern Hararghe Zone grow faba bean in different size of land (Figure 2.11). The result of the study showed that the average farm size of faba bean for the low income farmers was 0.091 ha and for the mid to high income farmers was 0.163 ha. The largest area the farmer possessed for faba bean production was 0.375 ha in the study area. The relatively wider areas of faba bean land were possessed by mid to high income farmers. The majority of the respondents (72%) possess less than 0.125 ha of land for growing faba bean. Negligible number of farmers (1%) have greater than 0.375 ha of land ready for faba bean sowing in one cropping season. Some key informants reported that the growing area of faba bean since recent years was getting low due to land shortage and large area of farm covered by chat plant. This was caused by high population density in the zone and farmers possessed an average farm size of 0.65 ha per household (Lemma and Wondimagegn, 2014).
Influence of agroecology and kebele on faba bean growing area
The area planted to faba bean by the respondent farmers varied between agroecologies and kebeles (Table 2.5). The farmers’ faba bean growing area was not significantly (p > 0.05) different between agroecologies in 2018 cropping season. However, the result of Tukey test indicated that the growing area was significantly (p < 0.05) varied between the agroecologies during 2017 cropping season and higher value (0.13 ha) of growing area was recorded in SH3 agroecology. This indicates that there are good growing conditions like enough land, climate and availability of production inputs in SH3 of the 2018 cropping season. In contrast to this result, Menbere (2017) reported non-significant difference in cropped area of common bean due to agroecologies.
The growing area was also significantly (p < 0.001) varied among kebeles in both 2017 and 2018 cropping seasons (Table 2.5). The highest faba bean area of production was recorded at Obi Kutir 1 kebele both in 2017 (0.26 ha) and 2018 (0.266 ha). Key informants in Obi Kutir 1 explained as there is relatively enough farm size in the kebele and the growers allocated higher area of land to grow faba bean. Betelhem et al. (2020) also reported significant differences in production areas in which on average, households in East Gojjam Zone planted more land to common bean (0.57 ha), followed by South Wollo (0.43 ha), Kefa (0.20 ha), and Bench Maji and Sheka (0.14 ha).
Table 2.5
Mean cropped area (ha) of faba bean per household as affected by kebele and agro-ecology in east Hararghe Zone in 2017 and 2018
Kebele
|
Cropped area (ha)
|
2017 (yr)
|
2018 (yr)
|
Burka Jalela
|
0.073b
|
0.078b
|
Obi Ku 1
|
0. 260a
|
0.266a
|
Rameta
|
0.066b
|
0.078b
|
Afgug
|
0.092b
|
0.108b
|
Epa Jalela
|
0.083b
|
0.114b
|
Gara Abdula
|
0.094b
|
0.13b
|
P - value
|
1.61e-15***
|
2.4e-08***
|
Agroecology
|
|
|
Tepid, moist mid highlands (M3)
|
0.09b
|
0.12
|
Tepid, sub-humid highlands (SH3)
|
0.13a
|
0.14
|
P - value
|
0.0238*
|
0.288ns
|
NB: The cropped area includes the sole crop area and area under intercropping. Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different according to Post Hoc Tukey’s test (α = 5%), ha = hectare, Kebele = sub-district.
Influence of wealth status on area of faba bean production
The impact of wealth status on faba bean cropped area of farmers in eastern Hararghe Zone was analysed using t-test (Table 2.6). The result showed that area of faba bean the farmers possessed was not significantly (p > 0.05) affected by the wealth status of the farmers in 2017 cropping season. However, wealth group has a significant (p < 0.001) impact on farm size of faba bean in 2018 cropping season. The cropped area in 2018 by the mid to high income group was higher (0.17 ha) than the low income group (0.09 ha) which may be due to the large land area possessed by the mid to high income group and they proportionally allocate more land area to faba bean compared to low income group farmers. Similar result was reported by Betelhem et al. (2020) in that the mid-to-high income (0.39 ha) group planted significantly more common bean than low income (0.29 ha) group in 2015/16 cropping season in Bench Maji, Sheka, Kafa, east Gojjam and south Wollo.
Table 2.6
Mean value of faba bean farmers’ varieties cropped area (ha) as affected by wealth group of farmers in east Hararghe Zone in 2017 and 2018 (n=72)
Wealth
|
Area of faba bean planted
|
2017 cropping season
|
2018 cropping season
|
Low income
|
0.38a
|
0.37b
|
Mid to high income
|
0.51a
|
0.67a
|
Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different according to t-test at 5% level of significance. |
3.5.4. Cropping practices
In the study area of both M3 and SH3 agroecologies, faba bean was planted as an intercrop or in rotation with other crop species by all respondent farmers (Figure 2.12a). Accordingly, most of the farmers (50%) in SH3 agroecology plant faba bean in intercropping with maize, and with chat and potato (33% each). In the M3 agroecology, faba bean is frequently intercropped with chat (47%), and less frequently with barley (11%). Three key informants explained that intercropping is usually practiced as crop intensification package in response to the shortage of land per household as a result of rise in population, to maximize profit and to minimize risk, moisture saving and to maintain soil fertility in the area. Similarly, Jima and Birhanu (2017) reported that all of the respondents participated in the interview practicing intercropping of different crops in west Hararghe Zone.
Farmers in the SH3 agroecology rotate faba bean frequently with maize (47%) and barley (42%) and less frequently with potato (6%) as shown in Figure 2.12b. In M3 agroecology also the respondents reported that they rotated faba bean mainly with wheat (43%) followed by maize (40%), garlic (36%), onions (29%), and less frequently with cabbage (10%) (Figure 2.12b). Five key informants explained that they plant faba bean in rotation in every year, every second or third year on the same field to increase yield of cereal crops involved in rotation. This is in agreement with the reports of Angus et al. (2015) that the yield of wheat after two successive legume break crops was 0.1 - 0.3 t ha−1 greater than after a single legume break crop.
3.5.5. Time of sowing
According to the response of faba bean growers participated in the interview, planting of faba bean varieties differs in time (Figure 2.13). Accordingly, the respondent farmers reported that the preferred time of sowing of faba bean farmers’ varieties can be extended from early June for Baqela Faranji (4% of the respondents) up to mid July for Safisa variety (40% of the respondents) in the study area. Key informants mentioned that the time of planting of the varieties is highly dependent on type of varieties and the onset of rainfall. Similar reason was suggested by Mulugeta (2017) for the planting time of field pea in Arsi and Kefa Zones.
3.5.6. Time of harvesting
The main harvesting time of faba bean farmers’ varieties were identified by the interviewed farmers (Figure 2.14). Majority of the faba bean grower respondents (46%) reported that Baqela Faranji variety is harvested at the beginning of December, for Baqela Habasha (54%) in late December, for Dabale (67%) in early December, for Bukuri (100%) in mid November, for Dhera (100%) in mid December and Safisa (40%) in mid November. Key informants said that the harvesting time depends on the planting time that is influenced by the onset of rainfall in the cropping season.
3.6. Yield of faba bean farmers’ varieties
The yield of faba bean farmers varieties produced in East Hararghe Zone was analyzed based on farmers yield obtained report. The faba bean farmers’ varieties in the study area were different from each other in their average yield (Figure 2.15).
As it can be seen from the result of the two consecutive years (2018 and 2019 cropping years), the highest average yield was recorded for Dabale (1900 kg ha−1) and the lowest average yield was recorded for Safisa (890.67 kg ha−1). The low yield of these varieties might be due to the inherent genetic variation and shortage of moisture during 2018 growing seasons. In line with this result, Tafere et al. (2012) reported grain yield of ten faba bean varieties ranged from 450 kg ha−1 to 2490 kg ha−1 in which Selale (2500 kg ha−1) was the highest yielding and Gebelcho (450 kg ha−1) were the lowest yielding varieties. Four key informant farmers suggested that those faba bean farmers’ varieties can perform better if accompanied by recommended cultural practices.
3.7. Production constraints of faba bean farmers’ varieties
The potential production constraints of faba bean in the study area were mentioned by the informant farmers (Figure 2.16). According to the results, the major faba bean production constraint in the study area was the diseases (100%), followed by the weeds (89%). Four key informants reported that rust (Uromyces fabae) and chocolate spot (Botrytis fabea) were the dominant disease affecting faba bean production in the area. They mentioned that cuqi (Galinsoga parviflora L.), coqorsa (Cynodon dactylon L.), parasitic weed (Orobanche sp) and migira sare (Digitaria sp) among important weeds grown in faba bean farm. Shortage of land (85%) and insect pests (68%) are also very important constraints hindering production of faba bean in the study area. Similarly, Asnakech et al. (2016) reported that most of the respondents (87.9%) of Finfine Special, Arsi and North Showa Zones reported faba bean chocolate spot disease as a major problem for faba bean production. Teklay et al. (2013) also reported that parasitic weeds like Orobanche crenate affect the yield of faba bean in Ethiopia.
3.8. Management practices of faba bean farmers’ varieties
The respondents from both agroecologies practiced no chemical method of insect pest and common diseases control measures. Some of the reasons mentioned for not using any pest control measures by key informants were that they cannot afford to buy the chemicals and some of the farmers lack awareness towards the impact of pests and diseases on the yield of faba bean.
Weed control
The majority (78%) of the respondents used hand weeding for controlling weeds grown in faba bean farm. Some of the farmers used hoeing (14%) and few respondents (8%) used slashing as weed controlling options in the study area. Some key informants reported that some farmers used non selective herbicides before sowing of faba bean to control weeds.
Soil fertility management
The soil fertility management practices of the informants were analysed (Figure 2. 17). The result of the study revealed that most of farmers applied compost as the source of soil fertility management system in all kebeles except for Gara Abdula where 50% of farmers did not applied any soil fertility management practices. All respondents in Burka Jalela applied compost (100%) and besides to compost 25% of them also applied manure as the soil fertility management methods on their faba bean farms. Key informants reported that no farmer used inorganic fertilizers such as DAP, Urea and NPS in their faba bean farms. They believe that those inorganic fertilizers increase vegetative growth of faba bean crops and lead to lodging. However, inorganic fertilizer application as the starter is essential to be applied for faba bean production as reported by MoARD (2008) that 46 kg ha−1 P2O5 and 18 kg ha−1 N2 is the amount of recommended inorganic fertilizer for faba bean variety Gachena.
3.9. Role of gender in production and management of faba bean
Regarding the gender roles, the respondents reported that the participation of female elders in faba bean production and management was nil in Meta district, 17% in Qersa, 25% in Deder, and 14% in Jarso districts (Figure 2.18). The participation of male adults in all districts was the highest (100%) and the female adults were also highest at Qersa and Deder, but 97% at Jarso and 92% at Meta kebele. Less participation of male elders also reported in Meta (8%) district. Key informants mentioned that elders and children less participated in faba bean production as it needs more energy and endurance.
Participation of all gender in the family of the respondents in faba bean production and management activities were analysed as shown below in Table 2.7. This study showed that family members of the farmers of both sex having different age category participate in different activities related to faba bean production and management. Two key informants mentioned that men are primarily responsible for ploughing and women are primarily responsible for food preparation. The key informants also reported that weeding is the dominant activity requiring large human power at critical time and can easily done by every age and gender groups. Mashingaidze et al. (2009) mentioned that smallholder farmers in the tropics faces serious weed challenge than any part of the world and spend 75% of their time battling with weeds in their fields. Ploughing, hoeing, cleaning, cooking, marketing activities were not or with less degree practiced by male children and female children in the Zone. These activities require high energy that the children cannot perform. In general, the key respondents underlined that there is no clearly visible sole responsibility of any age and gender group in majority of faba bean production and management activities. However, the most pronounced difference in gender roles of adult farmers was observed for ploughing (97% done by male adults compared to 3% done by female adults) and hoeing (97% done by male adults compared to 25% done by female adults) due to the heavy duty of the activities. Seed selection, storing and marketing, which bears important implications for the conservation of varietal diversity, was reported to be the responsibilities of both genders of adults and elders, excluding both ages of children in east Hararghe Zone.
Table 2.7
Proportions of the general respondents and role of gender in production and management of faba bean in east Hararghe Zone (n = 72)
Activity
|
Gender
|
Frequency
|
%
|
Activity
|
Gender
|
Frequency
|
%
|
Hoeing
|
Female children
|
1
|
1
|
Ploughing
|
Female adults
|
2
|
3
|
Female adults
|
18
|
25
|
Male children
|
8
|
11
|
Male children
|
18
|
25
|
Male adults
|
70
|
97
|
Male adults
|
70
|
97
|
Male elders
|
17
|
24
|
Male elders
|
17
|
24
|
Cleaning
|
Female adults
|
71
|
99
|
Levelling
|
Female children
|
3
|
4
|
Female elders
|
7
|
10
|
Female adults
|
56
|
78
|
Male children
|
1
|
1
|
Female elders
|
4
|
6
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Male children
|
18
|
25
|
Male elders
|
18
|
25
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Seed selection
|
Female adults
|
70
|
97
|
Male elders
|
20
|
28
|
Female elders
|
7
|
10
|
Sowing
|
Female adults
|
66
|
92
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Female elders
|
5
|
7
|
Male elders
|
9
|
13
|
Male children
|
11
|
15
|
Storing
|
Female adults
|
71
|
99
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Female elders
|
7
|
10
|
Male elders
|
20
|
28
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Weeding
|
Female children
|
12
|
17
|
Male elders
|
13
|
18
|
Female adults
|
72
|
100
|
Marketing
|
Female adults
|
71
|
99
|
Female elders
|
8
|
11
|
Female elders
|
5
|
7
|
Male children
|
27
|
38
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Male elders
|
6
|
8
|
Male elders
|
17
|
24
|
Cooking
|
Female children
|
1
|
1
|
Harvesting
|
Female adults
|
71
|
99
|
Female adults
|
71
|
99
|
Female elders
|
7
|
10
|
Female elders
|
9
|
13
|
Male children
|
5
|
7
|
Male children
|
1
|
1
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Male adults
|
71
|
99
|
Male elders
|
20
|
28
|
Male elders
|
9
|
13
|
Threshing
|
Female adults
|
60
|
83
|
Fodder collection
|
Female children
|
1
|
1
|
Female elders
|
5
|
7
|
Female adults
|
26
|
36
|
Male children
|
16
|
22
|
Male children
|
21
|
29
|
Male adults
|
72
|
100
|
Male adults
|
71
|
99
|
Male elders
|
18
|
25
|
Male elders
|
15
|
21
|