1.1 Landscape design and color
The significant visual features of design elements include color, as well as line, scale and form. In landscape design, color is mostly observed on plant leaves, flowers, seeds, shoots and stems in landscapes. Plants are living organisms that adapt to the environment with their colors to survive and reproduce. Plant colors and fruits create points of attraction during pollination, while they imitate the environment to deter pests (Kara, 2013; Aşur and Alpman, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Zeren et.al, 2017; Taş, 2019).
Color is associated with perception, and can evoke sensory, behavioral, physical meanings and strong ereactions. Almost everyone, subconsciously or consciously, reacts to colors (Sharpe, 1974; Williams & Patterson, 1999). Although these reactions include emotions such as pleasure, happiness, energy, calmness, excitation or discomfort, they are almost always immediate (Stanley, 2006; Menatti, & Casado Da Rocha, 2016; Rosen, & Purinton, 2004; Fraser, & Banks, 2004). In addition to creating emotions of well-being, pleasure, peace, contrast, excitement and energy in a space, colors could also lead to perceptions such as warm or cold, light or dark, happiness or sadness (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994; Hanada, 2018; Ou et.al, 2018; Wilms, & Oberfeld, 2018; Chetverikov, et.al, 2017; Kou et.al, 2021; You et.al, 2000; Yılmaz et.al, 2018, Çorbacı et.al, 2018; Düzenli et.al, 2018).
Like plants, humans exhibit certain reactions to colors throughout their development, and it was scientifically evidenced that these reactions are associated with survival, similar to other living beings. For instance, the combination of yellow and black is considered a danger signal, and we know that we should beware when we see yellow-black wasps. These adaptations and reactions have developed through centuries of experience. Throughout history, people believed in the healing power of colors. Colors have psychological effects; thus, spatial colors could be manipulated to obtain specific reactions. In design, a space painted in an attractive red always raises interest and increases the body temperature. On the contrary, the same space painted in cool shades of blue could have the opposite effect, leading to a feeling of calm and comfort by reducing blood pressure, heart rate and brain waves. Thus, it is possible to employ color in design to manipulate individuals’ reactions and spatial perceptions (Al-Zamil, 2017; Hamdy Mahmoud, 2017; costa et.al, 2018; Delcampo - Carda et.al, 2018; Yıldırım et.al, 2019 ; Banaei et al, 2020; Ma et.al, 2020).
In recent years, the rapid horticultural advances in landscape design led to several color choices for designers. The use of leafy and flowering plants in several colors in plant design demonstrated the increasing importance of color in landscaping. In addition to its biological functions, color allows the creation of pleasant effects in landscape compositions. For successful use of plant colors, knowledge on the concepts of color and color harmony and the analysis of color options are required in design. Adequate choice of color adds significant value and expression to the composition, while inadequate color combinations would lead to undesired and boring space (Strawberry and Strawberry 2020; Ma et.al, 2020; Saeedi and Dabbagh, 2020; Lee at.al, 2020 ).
Basic knowledge on color use is adapted from fine arts and especially painting in landscape design. However, there are certain differences between color use in planting design and painting. First, the space depicted in a painting usually reflects the colors visible for an exact moment. Second, when the colors with different pigments in a painting, it is predominantly perceived as black, while when the plants with different pigments are combined in a space, white or whitish colors are most likely prominent (Yazdanpanah et.al., 2020; Kou et.al, 2021; Wilms, & Oberfeld, 2018).
Certain color theories could be used in landscape design. Color theories are quite complex, and systematic studies on modern color theories date back to the 1800s. The development of modern color theory began in Goethe's book “The Theory Of Colors” published in 1840 (Eastlake, 2020). Numerous studies have been conducted on colors and perception since then. To solve the mystery of the colors, British physicist Newton bended the sunlight with a prism and reflected the seven colors on a curtain, similar to the rainbow. Newton and next generation of color scientists allowed the designers to apply the knowledge on colors (Esposito, 2020). Based on the color theories, the assessment of color is subjective. Perception, personal experiences, and pleasure influence the assessment (Kim et.al, 2020; Guo et.al, 2020). A better understanding of color perception would be an advantage in spatial plant selection. The first step to determine the color in design is the understanding of basic color concepts and develop a general language for color. Thus, it is necessary to know how colors are associated, how they look in various lighting conditions, how colors affect individuals, and how they create a spatial mood. Color is an optical illusion that occurs when light is absorbed or reflected by object surfaces. In other words, color is the result of a reaction to light in human eye retina The light that reach human eye is physically perceived by the receptors in the retina and interpreted in the brain as the perception of a particular color (Baek et al., 2020).
1.2. Classification of Colors
Color types include neutral, warm, and cold colors based on heat perception. Warm colors are yellow, orange and red. Cool colors are purple, blue-purple, blue-green, and yellow green. Neutral colors are black, white and gray. The warmness, coldness, neutrality or the lightness, darkness and dullness of the colors are effective in spatial design (Yıldırım et.al, 2019). Warm colors consist of red, orange and yellow on the spectrum. These colors have high vibration and radiation, hence visual energy and could be noticed from far away. Due to these properties, they create a convergence effect. Thus, they allow a space appear smaller and distant or large spaces are perceived closer or smaller than they really are. Among these colors, red catches the eye more quickly and allows objects to appear closer. Warm colors are active and dynamic colors; they increase the focus on one area, have stimulating and uplifting effects, provide a sense of mobility, vitality and joy, and create an image of fire, warmth and sun. However, excessive use of these colors could be tiring. While these colors provide a sense of warmth in cold weather, they are suffocating and tiring in hot weather. In spaces with warm colors, time passes faster for the occupants (Yıldırım et.al, 2019; Kuo, & Lai, 2017). Cold colors are associated with the sky, water, ice, forest and shadows and consist of green, blue and purple. Since the physical vibrations of these colors are weaker when compared to warm colors, they have relaxing effects. Thus, cold colors evoke the senses of coolness and calmness. They have chilling effects in cold spaces and cooling and relaxing effects in warm ones. Cool colors exhibit static properties. These colors create a sense or tendency of divergence in the landscape, and the space looks larger that it really is, since these colors have low visual energy. For example, the objects seem further away on a blue background. Although the spaces with cold colors seem farther and smaller than they really are, the background may appear larger than it really is (Altınçekiç, 2000; Yıldırım et.al, 2019). Neutral colors include warm and cool colors, as well as neutral colors such as black, white and gray. Grey is a mixture of black and white. Among neutral colors, white adds lightness and proximity to objects, and black provides depth (Altınçekiç, 2000; Yıldırım et.al, 2019).
Conventional approach to warm and cold colors has sometimes been quite simple. Color theorist Albers (1975) stated in “Interaction Of Color” that the temperature of colors was relative and only perceived when the colors are compared. Thus, it is not always true that warm colors always lead to warm emotions in plant compositions. According to Albers, green and purple are neither warm nor cool colors and are neutral. If these colors are placed next to warm colors, they could be perceived as warm, and when they are close to cold colors they are perceived as cold (Culp, 2018; Ivanovic & Rossi, 2017). For example, purple feels warm next to a red, and cold when it is next to a blue. Similarly, green is warm when close to yellow, and cold when next to a blue. The lightness and darkness of the colors also lead to differences in spatial perception in design. Black and purple are employed as dark tones, blue, red, and green are employed as middle tones, and orange, yellow and white are employed as light tones in compositions. Dark colors and tones evoke calmness and peace, they evoke depressive emotions when used excessively in the composition. Dark tones have a convergence effect, shortening the distance between the observed and the object (Pernão, 2017). Thus, dark and bright colors, similar to the warm colors, make the space smaller than it really is, and plants with these colors limit and constrict the space. Furthermore, they create a sense of rhythm when used at regular intervals. On the contrary, light colors and tones allow the space to be perceived larger when compared to darker plants. Light colored plants create a sense of spaciousness and evoke the emotions of joy and excitement. Furthermore, light colors are repellents. Thus, light and matte colors make the space look bigger, similar to the cold colors (Savavibool & Moorapun, 2017).
1.3. Color in the world of plants
The effects and intended use of colors that landscape architects utilize in design to create associations and visual impressions are as follows (Aşur, 2019; Manav, 2017; Plass Et. Al, 2020; Disabato-Aust, 2003; Scarfone, 2010; Hansen, 2012; Hansen, & Alvarez, 2010 ; Ahi, 2017; Lee, 2010; Kiang, 2008; Hutchings, 1997). The effects and meanings of colors on individuals and society could vary or change in time. Also, not all colors mean the same for everyone. For example, a red object would be perceived in the same red tone under the same light by everyone with a normal vision; however, but the subconscious reactions to effects of the perceived color would differ for every individual. This is associated with the individual's experiences, psychological state and proximity to the color. One of the aims of the present study was to determine the colors employed in landscape design and the associations of the colors evoked in individuals and to determine the level of agreement with these associations in the participants. These associations could be sensory, physical and behavioral.
Green, a cool color on the color spectrum, leads to emotions of nature, open air and countryside. It is the symbol of nature, strong development, efficiency and abundance, life and vitality. Green, important in religious and mystical beliefs, is the main color of Islam and a symbol of immortality in Christianity. Leaves are generally green in color. However, the tone of the green differs between the species. For example, the leaves of plants such as Acer buergeranum, Gingko biloba, cupressus macrocarpa 'Goldcrest', Robinia hispida, cytisus laburnum are light green, those of Aesculus x carnea, bauhinia variegata, wisteria sinensis, acer tataricum are medium green, while the leaves of Acer pseudoplatanus, Aesculus hippocastanum, dark green Crateagus x lavallei, Pinus pinea, Taxus baccata are very dark green. Furthermore, the leaves of plants such as Asarum eoropaeum, Fatsia japonica, Ilex latifolia, Prunus lasitonica, acer campestre are bright green.
Since green is a peaceful, calming and heartwarming color and vitalizes individuals, it is a primary color in landscape design. Since green is the perfect background color, it plays a key role in the relationships between colors. Green is a dominant color, but due to its incredible range of tonal variations, it creates an attractive spatial atmosphere. In design, dark green allows the individuals to distance themselves from the space and yellowish green shortens this distance. On the other hand, light green plants lead to a lighter, cooler and higher mood. Furthermore, transparent plants with bright and light green leaves create a distance between the composition and the observer and the space is perceived wider (Gou et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Blue is the color of the sea and sky and the symbol of infinity and eternity. It evokes stability, consistency, continuity, endurance, stability, nobility and accuracy. Blue promotes creative ideas, and is cool, distinctive, distant, calm and shy, and leads to comfortable, tranquil, cool, comfortable and peaceful spaces. It heals and relaxes the nerves and provides an easy thinking and working environment. Since it is a calm and relaxing color, it provides spaciousness and could turn leisure spaces into extremely calm environments. Thus, it could be perceived as a calm color in entertainment venues, although it is also suitable for meditation and thinking spaces, since it prevents psychological depression and reduces stress. Plants with true blue flowers, fruits or leaves are rare in nature. Diosporus lotus and Berberis veitchii fruits are blue, Picea pungens Glauca leaves are blue, Hydrangea macrophylla, Linum sp., Anagallis sp., Ceanothus skylark, and Anchusa azurea flowers are blue. Most appear in the spring rather than the summer. However, culture and genetic efforts led to the development of several blue plants. The blue colors of these plants are in fact lavender or purple. Most blue flowers also contain red. Blue is a cool color that creates spatial distance, perception of a space larger than it actually is and allows the observer to focus on a distant point. Thus, plants with flowers in short wavelength blue colors are often perceived farther than their actual location and used to create depth in the composition. In the composition, blue creates breathing points between warm colors, as well as binding the colors in thecomposition. Blue could bind different red tones such as lilac, violet and indigo. Furthermore, blue could be used to create shadows, and could be planted in pots and containers (Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Purple is a color with a unique and effective shade with introversion, mysterious, melancholic and mystical effects. Purple, the inspirational color of peace and pursuit, has been used as a symbol of royalty, wealth and knowledge throughout history. In art, purple is used to express the lack of sun and transparent shades. Purple, employed mainly by the impressionists, symbolizes restlessness, mysticism and depth, evokes danger and courage. Short wavelength purple creates spatial distance and adds depth to the composition. Dark purple generally blends easily with other colors. Dark purple offers pleasant and relaxing compositions when used with silver, gray, peach, coral, and rust colors. However, excessive use could lead to depressing and gloomy views and a sense of isolation in the composition. It can also be a soulless and dull color in vibrant environments with inadequate sunlight. Thus, unsaturated lilac and purple could be ineffective in shade; thus, plants in these colors could be used in large patches to create romantic effects. Plants with purple flowers include Rhododendron ponticum, Poulounia tomentosa, Hebe Verenica, Calluna vulgaris, Cercis siliquastrum, Magnolia grandiflora, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rhododdendron simirnovii (Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Yellow that represents gold, sun and light is the symbol of wisdom, power and common sense. Yellow has been employed as a royal color like purple and is an inspiring color in bright and pure tones and stimulates intellect. As a dominant color, it draws attention to the space, like the flame of a candle or a magnet. Thus, yellow is perfect to enliven dark spaces and lower parts of the trees. Golden yellow is ideal to enliven shaded areas, and plants with golden leaves on a shady roadside create “luminous spots.” There are several bulbous and perennial plants and shrubs with yellow flowers. Yellow is the color of the spring-blooming daffodil. Plants with yellow stems or those that turn yellow in autumn or with yellow speckles are common in nurseries. Eounymus japonica 'Aurea' has yellow leaves, Acacia dealbata has light yellow flowers, Hipophea rhamnoides, Jasminum fruticans, Forsythia x intermedia blossom yellow flowers in late summer, and Sparteum junceum, Mohonia aquifolium are ideal for borders with yellow flowers. The yellow is compatible with almost all colors. However, yellow and golden yellow plants such as Acer vercilliata, Rhododendron luteum create a contrast when combined with plants of opposite colors (blue, purple, or even pink). Yellow complements purple. Thus, these plants go well with purples, blues and blue-violets (Regular et.al, 2018; Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Orange is the color of invitation and abundance, children and play. Although it is a warm color, it is not as dynamic as red. When viewed, it evokes warmth, stimulating and heartwarming emotions, happiness, optimism and joy. Orange evokes brightness, wealth, light and efficiency, and it is the color of autumn and flame, symbolizing wisdom, justice, enlightenment and revelation. It offers entertaining spaces for children, and it is also an exotic color. But it cannot be viewed for a long time. In plants, flowers, barks, shoots could be orange, as well as the autumn leaves. While several annual, biannual and perennial plants such as Eschscholtziai californica have orange flowers, there are also several woody shrubs with orange fruits that attract birds in the fall. Euphorbia griffithi, Fritillaria imperialis 'Rubra maxima', Tulipa, Geum, Helenium blossoms with orange flowers in spring, Sorbus sargentiana leaves turn orange in autumn and has orange shoots in winter. Tilia cordata "Winter orange" and the orange fruits of Physalis alkegengii are attractive. Secondary colors such as orange, red and yellow could dominate compatible colors. Several Graminea (Stipa gigantea and Calamagrostis) could create pleasant compositions with attractive pink bronze flowers among orange plants. Thus, reddish brown and earth colors go well with orange. Orange is harmonious with yellow and red plants, while when combined with blue, for example in Lobelia and Tagates combination, it is shocking. It could be combined with orange bronze or ivory for less striking effects. The complementary blue affects the orange even more in the composition. Bright orange spots in a blue space exhibit dramatic effects and alter the blue balance (Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Red symbolizes danger, aggression, vitality, provocation and war. The light and pure tones of red symbolize love and sensuality, while dark tones reflect excessive passion, anger and stress. Red is the color of desire and warmth, and it is reminiscent of blood, sun and fire. Red is warm, exciting and provocative, symbolizing the red rose and love. Red vibrates is the strongest and most dynamic color in the spectrum. Due to refreshing and active properties, it sometimes encourages individuals to move in a space, sometimes increases the blood pressure. Since it provides positive energy, hope and strength, mental warmth, it could be used near seating furniture or in leisure spaces. Although red is perceived as a single color, there are 2 types of red. Warm red is close to orange, while cold red is closer to purple. The employment of bluish reds with dark colors such as dark blue, purple, bronze and brown leads to a rich space. Since red catches the eye, a bright and vibrant red immediately adds a shock to the composition. Compositions that include red creates a stopping point in our movements. Thus, red could be used to create surprising spaces. Especially in group compositions, dense red spots attract the gaze like a magnet, creating balance and rhythm in the composition. In narrow compositions, depth could be achieved with red on the front and cold colors in the background. However, it may not be right to employ several reds in hospital gardens, since they might create tension, fear and anxiety in long exposure. Due to its demoralizing and depressing effect, it is best to use red in the form of dots. The red blooming plants include Callistemon citrunus, Chamecyparis japonica, Erica carnea, Erica cinerea, Hibiscus rosa chinensis. Plants also with leaves that turn red include Acer palmatum 'Atropurpurea', Prunus ceracifera 'Atropurpurea', Acer crimson king (Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
White is a mixture of all colors. The refreshing white represents goodness, innocence, cleanliness and nobility. It is a symbol of abstract and intelligence. In several cultures, white symbolizes high ideals and divinity. A white garden often creates a sense of freshness, status, intellect, and formality. The white is used to reflect purity, brightness, order and romance and stands out in birch stems, snowdrop flowers, and rowan and snowberry fruits. White flowering plants include Arbutus unedo, Deutzia scabra, Jasminum officinale, Fatsia japonica, Spirea x vanhouttei, Spirea pruniflora, Rhododendron caucasicum. White could be combined with almost all colors without problem. White increases the strength of other colors, and they could be combined to create balanced compositions. The stimulating, fresh and delicate effects of white flowers increase when used in groups instead of in combination with other colors. Other colors appear more distinct or darker in a composition with white, increasing contrast and saturation. Red is perceived as crimson on snow. Dark colors such as dark polished greens create a contrast with white, leading to focus in design. Medium gray and green tones go well with white plants, creating a soft effect. White is compatible with bright grays. Color-theme gardens (white gardens) could be designed with white color compositions. Thus, white gardens are a good start for monochromatic color compositions. In such a garden, associations between the white and off-white, cream-yellow or pink, green or lavender flowers should be utilized instead of true white colors to create pleasant expressions (Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Güneş and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Black characterizes gravity and seriousness. Black is the symbol of solitude and tranquility and could evoke evil. Black is also an effective color, similar to white, that could reflect every desire or fear. When used on small surfaces, black creates vitality and a feeling of anxiety and fear when used on large surfaces. It reminds people of troubles and worries, but it is also true that we wear black dresses in joyful times and for special occasions. In this case, black is an indicator of personality. Although the true black color does not exist in nature, the flowers, leaves or shoots on plants look like black. This perceived black is actually a variation of red or purple. For example, the very popular black tulip Tulipa "Queen of Night" or Tulipa nigra "Barlaensis" is actually dark purple, and Ranunculus ficaria "Bronze Hassy" is dark bronze. Black plants create a dramatic effect in the landscape and attract the gaze due to the power of black. When combined with whites, the effect of both colors increases. Thus, the drama of a white composition increases with the dark color or shade effect created by black. For example, when Alcea rosea 'Nigra' or Alcea rosea 'Black Beauty' is used with white-flowered perennials (Eupotarium rugosa or Lysimachia clethroides), the perception of the flower color intensifies (Gou, et.al, 2020; Mohseni et.al, 2020; Sun and Olguntürk, 2020; Aşur and Alphan, 2018; Altınçekiç, 2000; Taş, 2019; Sharpe, 1974).
Gray, the element of compromise and balance, represents humility and a dignified kindness. Gray, which lacks the dominant weight of black, psychologically evokes peace, tranquility, modesty and caution in individuals. Plants with silver and gray leaves have various surface textures that range between leather or soft waxy surfaces and fuzzy or hard hairy ones. The hairy and waxy structure of the plant reflects the sunlight to different directions, and the plant is perceived as grayish. Gray color is also the color of leaves that conjure warm and dry climates. Gray-leaved plants often require well-drained soil and are therefore difficult to grow. Several grow in hot, dry locations and like the wind. These plants are also affected by weather and temperature conditions. For example, they appear in green or blue tones in shade or in winter. Gray colors are indispensable for a designer. The neutral properties of the color, and its the harmonizing effect in compositions with extensive number of elements are among the important advantages of gray. Gray color contrast with dark plants and highlight the plant groups that include gray plants due to their reflective and light-absorbing properties. Gray colored plants such as Stachys byzantina, Veronica incana, Artemissia 'Silver Mound', Artemissia 'Silver King', Anaphalis margaritacea, and Anaphalis triplinerus create nice contrasts behind dark green, bright leafy plants and colorful flower arrangements. Gray also acts as a bridge by providing neutral transitions between striking colors and textures.
Pink is a warm and nice shade of red, and evokes friendliness, youth, freshness and emotions. Pink is a prevalent flower color. It is used as a binder between strong colors. It allows successful compositions especially in locations with cloud cover and soft light. It adds vitality to shady spaces, similar to other pastel colors. Although pink is perceived like a simple color that includes white and red, the compositions that include pink are quite complex. However, independent of the shade, pink always allows the perception of red in a composition. Pink turns into peach color when combined with yellow. Thus, peach includes red and yellow or white tones. Saturated peaches create luminous and bright spaces and create effective contrasts with dark plants. Pink flowering plants include Spirea bumalda, Veigela coreensis, and Lagerstromia indica.
Variegated plants vary in color in the form of stripes, spots, or patches in yellow to yellow-green, bluish-green or white. The most visually important function of variegated plants, the leaves of which play a dramatic role in plant compositions, is their power to focus the attention and create an emphasis in landscape design. Yellow variegated plants are important design elements that would allow the addition of yellow to the space. The golden variegated plants are especially effective in high altitudes with little light in winter, and most preserve their color until the leaves fall. Yellow variegated leaves create clear, bright, luminous effects and could be combined with contrast colors or other warm colors. Plants with purple and yellow leaves could be combined for visual excitement. Since variegated plants are neutral, they can be combined with plants of several colors and textures. The variegated white offers cool effects in design and is harmonious with cold colors. Creating strong contrasts with red and orange plants, white variegated plants are best combined with plants with blue, purple and pink flowers. These plants reflect light, lighten shaded areas and especially the dark and shady corners. The inclusion of several species with variegated leaves in design could lead to powerful effects. Sometimes they could be quite ornamental. Although variegated plants create attractive points or emphasis, sometimes plants may look diseased in yellow variegated compositions. On the other hand, pure golden yellow leaves look healthier in the composition and improve the power of the design with their attractive and lively presentation. Effective color combinations could be achieved with yellow and golden variegated foliage and dark varieties. The plants with variegated leaves include Eounymus japonica Aurea variegata, Pittosporum tobira Variegata, Hyrdrangea macrophylla variegata, tradescantia nanouk, Ilex aquifolium and Aurea variegata. Based on the above-mentioned information, the color association perceptions of individuals in landscape design are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
The color association perceptions of individuals in landscape design
Red
|
Passion
Love
Strength
Anger
|
Raises blood
Pressure
Raises heart rate
Stimulates appetite
|
Hot
Aggressive
Danger
Stop
|
Orange
|
Happy
Energetic
Pleasant
|
Encourages
Movement
Vigor
|
Movement
Provides energy
Social
|
Yellow
|
Warm
Cheerful
Solitary
İrritable
|
Poor skin
Reflection
Bright
reflective
|
Lively
Secure
Caution
Slow
|
Green
|
Friendly
Calming
Neutral
|
Concentration
Focus
Attention
|
Envy
Avarice
Balanced
|
Blue
|
İsoloted
Peaceful
Cool
Distant
|
Lowers blood
Pressure
Decreases appetite
|
Calm
Conservative
Loyal
Trusting
|
Purple
|
Spiritual
Enlightened
Creative
Artistic
|
Calming
Relaxing
Helps
İnsomnia
|
Surprise
Magic
Regal
Royal
Rare
|
White
|
Innocence
Favor
Dignity
|
Spaciousness
Intelligence
Cleaning
|
Romance
Order
|
Black
|
Evil
Weight
|
Loneliness
Tranquility
|
Seriousness
Trouble
Worry Fear
|
Variegated
|
Power
Emphasis
|
Coolness
Dramatic
Inviting
|
Take Attention
Excitement
|
Pink
|
Hot
Alive
|
Cute
Youth
|
Friendly
Freshness
|
Gray-Silvery
|
Softness
Serenity
Balance
|
Calm
Harmony
Tranquility
|
Be Cautious
Show Humility
Humility
|
The present study aimed to determine the agreement levels with color associations in landscape design. The following research problems were determined:
-
What are the agreement levels of open green space occupants and landscape architects with color associations in landscape design?
-
Is there a difference between the agreement levels of these two groups?
-
Between which associations are there differences?