There were 2103 valid respondents in total. The sample aged 18–70 with a mean age = 33.72 (SD = 13.7) and it is composed 64% (= 1346) by female and 36% (= 757) by male. 1459 people from the North of Italy (69%), 145 from the Center (7%), 496 from the South and the Islands (24%) answered the questionnaire.
Participants’ demographic information is shown in Table 1. The sample had different levels of age and education. Most of them had high school diploma or graduate.
Table 1
_Descriptive statistics of the sample
Characteristic | Group | n (%) |
Gender | Female | 1346 (64%) |
Male | 757 (36%) |
Age | | 2103 (100%) |
M (SD) | 33.72 (13.7) |
Min-Max | 18–70 |
Geographical position | North | 1459 (69%) |
Center | 145 (7%) |
South | 478 (23%) |
Islands | 21 (1%) |
Education | No title | 4 (0%) |
Primary school diploma | 0 (0%) |
Middle school diploma | 132 (6%) |
High school diploma | 884 (42%) |
Graduate | 764 (36%) |
Postgraduate | 319 (15%) |
Descriptive statistics and reliability of ITAPI-S are present in Table 2. The internal reliability of the questionnaire was analyzed using Cronbach’s α.
Table 2
_ Descriptive statistics and reliability of ITAPI-S.
ITAPI-S | Mean | SD | Cronbach’s α |
Dynamicity | 11.72 | 2.20 | 0.67 |
Vulnerability | 10.14 | 2.73 | 0.74 |
Empathy | 12.46 | 2.06 | 0.60 |
Consciousness | 11.81 | 2.32 | 0.69 |
Imagination | 12.12 | 2.44 | 0.76 |
Difensivity | 11.72 | 2.08 | 0.52 |
Introversion | 10.71 | 2.46 | 0.66 |
PGWBI was validated in Italy in 2000 on a non-clinical Italian population [21]. A comparison between average scores and reliability of our research sample and the validation sample of PGWBI is present in Table 3 and Table 4.
Table 3
_ Descriptive statistics of PGWBI for Research sample and Validation sample.
| Research sample (2103) | Validation sample (1129) |
PGWBI | Mean | SD | Mean | SD |
Total score | 64.5 | 13.1 | 78 | - |
Anxiety | 16.1 | 4.7 | 17.3 | 4.9 |
Depression | 8.5 | 1.5 | 12.4 | 2.6 |
Positivity and well-being | 9.9 | 3.2 | 11.8 | 4.1 |
Vitality | 12.2 | 3.2 | 13.4 | 4 |
General Health | 7.4 | 1.8 | 11.1 | 3.1 |
Self-Control | 10.4 | 2.7 | 11.8 | 2.7 |
Table 4
_ Reliability of PGWBI for Research sample and Validation sample
| Research sample (2103) | Validation sample (1129) |
PGWBI | Cronbach's α | Cronbach's α |
Total score | 0.90 | 0.94 |
Anxiety | 0.87 | 0.85 |
Depression | 0.77 | 0.80 |
Positivity and well-being | 0.80 | 0.80 |
Vitality | 0.76 | 0.77 |
General Health | 0.43 | 0.70 |
Self-Control | 0.66 | 0.61 |
Reliability measured with Cronbach’s α is similar between the two samples. In the current research, Cronbach’s α was 0.90, showing an excellent internal consistency for the scale. General health and Self-Control have Cronbach's α values among the lowest in the series. The authors of the PGWBI [21] validated in Italy had already found low alpha values for these two domains due to the shortness of the scales. However, General health also correlated with all the other scales of the test, emphasizing the inherently generic nature of its domain. Self-control, on the other hand, was the weakest scale of the questionnaire. This explains why in our sample Cronbach’s α of General Health (α = 0.43) and Self-control (α = 0.66) are low.
For each domain of the PGWBI, high scores correspond to psychological well-being. The higher the score the better the level of well-being is considered. Even high anxiety and depression scores indicate that the population does not experience such negative moods, whereas a low score indicates suffering.
The total score is obtained from the sum of the 22 items of the test and it can vary from 0 to 110. The score has been divided into 4 areas: severe distress, moderate distress, non-distress and positive well-being.
The total score of the Italian population on which the test was validated is 78, corresponding to the "Non-distress" area. The total score of the research sample is 64.46 (SD = 13.08). This score is within the limit of the moderate distress range, slightly above the severe distress range that could cause psychiatric problems. This is an important index of the sample's psychological health during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Anxiety perception is similar between the two samples. Depression domain is lower in the research sample (m = 8.46; SD = 1.53) than in the validation sample (m = 12.4; SD = 2.62). The Italian population may have experienced a depressive state facing the impotence generated by the Coronavirus. The other domains report similar scores between the two sample except for Positivity and well-being and General health that resulted lower than the validation sample. These results could also be influenced by the perception of helplessness and insecurity about the future and the unknown disease.
Both the research sample and the validation sample were analysed dividing according to gender. The mean score and the standard deviation split between males and females for each domain are shown in Table 5.
Table 5
_Comparison between Research sample and Validation sample about gender
Male | Research Sample (= 757) | Validation sample (= 543) |
Mean | SD | Mean | SD |
Anxiety | 17.2 | 4.5 | 18.1 | 4.6 |
Depression | 8.8 | 1.5 | 12.8 | 2.3 |
Positivity and well-being | 10.5 | 3.3 | 12.5 | 3.8 |
Vitality | 12.7 | 3.3 | 14.2 | 3.5 |
General Health | 7.7 | 1.7 | 11.5 | 2.9 |
Self-Control | 11.2 | 2.6 | 12.1 | 2.5 |
Female | Research sample (= 1346) | Validation sample (= 586) |
Mean | SD | Mean | SD |
Anxiety | 15.3 | 4.7 | 16.6 | 5.2 |
Depression | 8.3 | 1.5 | 12 | 2.8 |
Positivity and well-being | 9.7 | 3.1 | 11.1 | 4.1 |
Vitality | 11.9 | 3.1 | 11.5 | 2.8 |
General Health | 7.3 | 1.8 | 10.7 | 3.2 |
Self-Control | 9.9 | 2.7 | 12.7 | 4.3 |
Males of the research sample are more depressed (= 8.83) than those of the validation sample (= 12.8), such as females of the research sample (= 8.25) compared to those of the validation sample (= 12).
In particular, in the sample of the current study, females report lower health than men mainly in terms of Anxiety and perception of Self-control.
PGWBI Italian validation’s authors divided the sample by age into different ranges: 18–20; 21–24; 25–29; 30–34; 35–39; 40–44; 45–49; 50–54; 55–64; 65–74; > 75.
In the current study, it has been done the same division, shown in Table 6.
Table 6
_Descriptive statistics of the sample divided by age
| Anxiety | Depression | Positivity and well being | Vitality | General health | Self control |
Range age | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD |
18–20 (145) | 15.55 | 4.80 | 8.06 | 1.82 | 9.50 | 2.92 | 11.54 | 3.08 | 7.85 | 1.54 | 9.70 | 2.78 |
21–24 (524) | 14.64 | 4.87 | 8.10 | 1.56 | 9.29 | 2.92 | 11.51 | 3.19 | 7.45 | 1.86 | 9.70 | 2.73 |
25–29 (547) | 16.18 | 4.58 | 8.48 | 1.46 | 10.13 | 3.06 | 12.41 | 3.06 | 7.53 | 1.72 | 10.28 | 2.60 |
30–34 (167) | 16.24 | 4.58 | 8.64 | 1.46 | 10.19 | 3.11 | 12.08 | 2.93 | 7.32 | 1.78 | 10.63 | 2.45 |
35–39 (105) | 16.87 | 4.40 | 8.64 | 1.42 | 10.67 | 3.30 | 12.49 | 3.17 | 7.43 | 1.64 | 11.01 | 2.49 |
40–44 (105) | 16.24 | 4.51 | 8.77 | 1.67 | 10.05 | 3.38 | 12.26 | 3.78 | 7.18 | 1.85 | 10.89 | 2.54 |
45–49 (115) | 16.23 | 4.80 | 8.56 | 1.51 | 9.98 | 3.89 | 12.46 | 3.66 | 7.40 | 1.68 | 10.65 | 3.00 |
50–54 (128) | 16.92 | 4.49 | 8.71 | 1.24 | 10.71 | 3.19 | 13.15 | 3.29 | 6.88 | 1.79 | 11.03 | 2.66 |
55–64 (212) | 17.28 | 4.16 | 8.79 | 1.43 | 10.53 | 3.31 | 12.87 | 3.08 | 7.22 | 1.65 | 11.21 | 2.43 |
65–75 (55) | 18.17 | 4.05 | 9.11 | 1.42 | 11.09 | 3.28 | 13.37 | 3.42 | 7.37 | 1.97 | 11.43 | 2.66 |
Total = 2103 | | | | | | | | | | | | |
On the validation sample, age did not have a crucial effect on the perception of psychological health. In the comparison between the two samples, the scores of the six domains are similar except for the Depression which is always lower in the research sample, as shown in the previous comparisons.
In the current sample, there are some differences concerning age. The youngest people (18–24) reported the lowest values of all in the six dimensions of the PGWBI.
It is a notable data considering that COVID-19 has much more serious consequences on the health of older people who instead reported no negative psychological health scores.
Pearson’s correlation among PGWBI and ITAPI-S variables is present in Table 7.
Table 7
_Correlation Matrix between PGWBI and ITAPI-S variables
ITAPI-S | Total | Anxiety | Depression | Positivity and well-being | Vitality | General Health | Self-Control |
Dynamicity | 0.199** | 0.086** | 0.124** | 0.259** | 0.212** | 0.051* | 0.150** |
0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.018 | 0.000 |
Vulnerability | -0.627** | 0.566** | -0.467** | -0.526** | -0.465** | -0.109** | -0.546** |
0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Empathy | 0.056* | 0.029 | 0.053* | 0.097** | 0.078** | -0.115** | 0.058** |
0.011 | 0.189 | 0.015 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.008 |
Coscientuousness | 0.023 | 0.033 | -0.024 | 0.044* | 0.079** | -0.037 | 0.062** |
0.283 | 0.133 | 0.275 | 0.043 | 0.000 | 0.094 | 0.004 |
Imagination | -0.014 | 0.032 | -0.005 | 0.037 | 0.021 | 0.010 | -0.085** |
0.527 | 0.145 | 0.812 | 0.089 | 0.332 | 0.636 | 0.000 |
Difensiveness | -0.073** | 0.069** | -0.026 | -0.087** | -0.048* | -0.017 | -0.050* |
0.001 | 0.002 | 0.240 | 0.000 | 0.028 | 0.425 | 0.022 |
Introversion | -0.025 | 0.024 | -0.026 | -0.056** | -0.049* | 0.092** | 0.001 |
0.254 | 0.269 | 0.234 | 0.010 | 0.025 | 0.000 | 0.981 |
A series of multiple regression has been conducted, considering the PGWBI questionnaires’ subscales. In each regression, the intercept was one of PGWBI’s subscales and the predictors were ITAPI-S’ subscales controlled for gender and age.
For each regression equation, the overall effect size (magnitude of R) was interpreted. Accordingly, in interpreting the results we gave the greatest emphasis to statistically significant predictors that also had medium or large effects (β > 0.1).
The regression analysis of each PGWBI domain is present in Table 8.
Table 8
_Regression analysis predicting PGWBI’s scores from ITAPI-S’ domains (controlling for gender and age
Intercept | Predictors | β | t | p-value | R2 |
Total score | Gender | -0.07 | -4.20 | 0.000 | 0.42 |
Age | 0.05 | 3.05 | 0.002 |
Vulnerability | -0.62 | -33.69 | 0.000 |
Immagination | 0.08 | 4.54 | 0.000 |
Dynamicity | 0.07 | 3.66 | 0.000 |
Introversion | 0.05 | 3.21 | 0.001 |
Empathy | 0.05 | 2.88 | 0.004 |
Anxiety | Gender | -0.07 | -4.07 | 0.000 | 0.34 |
Age | 0.06 | 3.51 | 0.000 |
Vulnerability | 0.56 | -29.49 | 0.000 |
Immagination | 0.08 | 4.53 | 0.000 |
Depression | Gender | -0.08 | -3.94 | 0.000 | 0.24 |
Age | 0.08 | 4.21 | 0.000 |
Vulnerability | 0.46 | -22.64 | 0.000 |
Immagination | 0.09 | 4.41 | 0.000 |
Difensivity | 0.05 | 2.78 | 0.006 |
| Gender | -0.03 | -1.35 | 0.179 | |
| Age | 0.03 | 1.45 | 0.147 | |
| Vulnerability | -0.51 | -26.20 | 0.000 | 0.32 |
Positivity and well-being | Dynamicity | 0.14 | 7.30 | 0.000 | |
| Immagination | 0.08 | 4.23 | 0.000 | |
| Empathy | 0.07 | 3.70 | 0.000 | |
| Gender | -0.01 | -0.77 | 0.444 | 0.25 |
| Age | 0.07 | 3.40 | 0.001 |
Vitality | Vulnerability | -0.45 | -21.78 | 0.000 |
Dynamicity | 0.11 | 5.10 | 0.000 |
| Immagination | 0.08 | 3.81 | 0.000 |
| Consciousness | 0.05 | 2.81 | 0.005 |
General Health | Gender | -0.08 | -3.46 | 0.000 | 0.05 |
Age | -0.10 | -4.29 | 0.001 |
Vulnerability | -0.12 | -5.33 | 0.000 |
Introversion | 0.09 | 4.02 | 0.000 |
Empathy | -0.07 | -3.26 | 0.001 |
Self-Control | Gender | -0.09 | -4.87 | 0.000 | 0.33 |
Age | 0.08 | 4.18 | 0.000 |
Vulnerability | -0.52 | -27.59 | 0.000 |
Consciousness | 0.05 | 2.85 | 0.004 |
Empathy | 0.07 | 3.51 | 0.000 |
Introversion | 0.06 | 3.19 | 0.001 |
Only the significant relationships with β > 0.10 were considered. Gender and age did not influence the results.
Vulnerability trait influenced negatively PGWBI total score (β=-0.62), Anxiety (β=-0.55), Depression (β=-0.46), Positivity and well-being (β=-0.51), Vitality (β=-0.45), General health (β = 0.12) and Self-control (β=-0.52).
Dynamicity trait influenced positively Vitality (β = 0.12) and Positivity and well-being (β = 0.14).
Despite the differences between genders (shown in Table 5) and between ages (shown in Table 6) of the sample, gender and age were not influential predictors on psychological and mental health.