3.1. Wetland Dependency of the study village
We identified 18 ecosystem services from the oral testimonies (see Table 1) out of which 4 ecosystem services provided important sources of livelihood.
Table 1
Types of ecosystem services provided by Dankuni wetlands
Types of ecosystem services
|
Ecosystem services recorded
|
Provisioning (12)
|
1) Seasonal farming
2) Fish
3) Edible wild flowers
4) Leafy vegetables
5) Mollusc
6) Fibre
7) Water
8) Mud
9) Bamboo
10) Jute-stick
11) Fuelwood
12) Fodder
|
Regulating (2)
|
1) Water purification
2) Flood regulation
|
Cultural (2)
|
1) Capacity to reflect
2) Recreation (children build mud-houses)
|
Supporting (2)
|
1) Fish nursery
2) Nutrient retention
|
3.1.1 Provisioning services
Twelve products including plants and animals, edible and non-edible were identified by the respondents which they obtain from the wetland (see Fig. 2). Interviewees commonly cultivated edible crops such as paddy, onion, ladies finger, spinach, coriander, beans, cow pea, Indian pea (see Table 2). Among these, paddy was the most important resource for local consumption as well as livelihood. The harvested rice is generally kept for consumption and the excess rice is sold at 1000-1300 INR[5]/bag with each bag containing 60 kg rice. 50 year old GB said “The paddy we harvest is good in quality, much more healthy and tasty than the rice provided at government ration shops which is often mixed with dirt and small stones,” indicating that he felt a certain pride in harvesting his own rice. Another farmer, 43 year NT, further added that the rice from fair price shops costs around 32-33 INR/kg but his children refuses to eat it because of its poor quality. On the other hand, premium quality rice was reportedly too costly to afford. Onion and okhra were the two other commonly cultivated crops. KK, a 30 year old farmer, seemed happy with the significant profit returns from his piece of land after harvesting these crop types, “I spent 20,000 INR for harvesting onion and okhra but earned 80,000 INR. After harvesting the paddy, I planted jute in the same land. I spent 20,000 INR in labour again but earned 50,000 INR. For paddy, if I spend 10,000 INR in labour, I get back 26,000 INR.”
Table 2
Commonly produced crops and their price
Name of Crop
|
Average Selling Price (INR/Kg)
|
Average Selling Price (USD/Kg)
|
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
|
70
|
1
|
Spinach (Spinacia oleracea)
|
70
|
1
|
Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)
|
40
|
0.50
|
Indian Pea leaves (Lathyrus sativus)
|
60
|
0.80
|
Ladies Finger (Abelmoschus esculentus)
|
53
|
0.70
|
Onion (Allium cepa)
|
30
|
0.45
|
Bamboo and mud were frequently used wetland products for constructing houses. Bamboo was also used for making fish catching traps, broomsticks and baskets. These products provided additional sources of livelihood and were particularly useful when cultivation failed. 29 year old DD’s crops failed in 2019 but he survived by selling fish catching traps for 250 INR and baskets for 50 INR.
For widows from the marginalized sections of the society who were also landless, molluscs provided the only source of livelihood. For them, providing for their children was economically challenging and they could overcome this hardship because they could collect products from the wetland and sell them. AK, who is a senior citizen now, reminisced how she went out searching for molluscs in waist-deep water in the wetland during the day accompanied by three to four other women. They felt for them on the soft mud underneath which by itself was a physically exhausting process. It did not end there as they had to wake up by 2 a.m. in the following morning and dress the molluscs in time. They then sold them for 80 INR/kg via middlemen who gave back 30-50 INR/kg. 60 year old SK rather preferred selling them door-to-door or by herself in the market and reportedly earned 200 INR/kg. But did they still prefer to undertake this hardship once their children grew up and started earning for the family? Yes they did as it helped them remain independent as well as provided means to support their family when needed. As AK explained with a tone of clear confidence, “My sons look after me but I choose not to ask for money from them to cater to my needs and cravings.” She also added that molluscs are packed with nutrition and are good for eyesight as was told to her by doctors.”
Almost all respondents fished in the recent past (till 5 years ago). Many of them are still involved in fishing. Fish is caught by various methods. SK caught fishes with her bare hands rather than with fish traps or nets and reported that “Heteropneustes fossilis and Clarius batrachus are rare but if caught fetches good prices upto 1000 INR/kg. Smaller fish like Cyprinus rubrofuscus can be sold for 200-300 INR/kg.” Respondents also used fish traps made from bamboo and fishnets with various hole-sizes.
Fuelwood, fodder, edible plants and plant fibre are useful wetland resources in the village. BT, a 50 year old widow, was especially dependent on fuelwood collected from the swamp to run her small eatery which catered to farmers in the field and to factory workers. Indian Jointvetch (Aeschynmene indica), jute-sticks and bamboo were used as fuelwood. Villagers also depended on swamp grass to feed their cows. Leafy vegetables and stalks of aquatic plants were widely collected for local consumption. Poorer people such as widowed women and older residents also sold them. Some respondents also collected Harsh Jointvetch (Aeschynmene aspera) which was used for making marriage gear for brides and grooms and for decorating religious deities. KK (30) reported the selling price to be 300 INR/bundle while SD (49) said that people earn 400-500 INR/bundle to even 1000 INR/bundle during summer. Water from the swamp was reportedly used for irrigating farm plots. “If there is no swamp, then, water for agriculture will not be available anymore. The surroundings are drying up day by day,” said said 32 year old PM.
Older residents also benefited from the wetlands as they could undertake less laborious tasks and were still able to support their families. “I cultivate a little bit of onion and take the cattle out to graze. I also collect edible plants from the swamp. At my age, that’s as hard as I can work to support myself and the family. But I will not be able to do this if the swamp is lost and will have to depend on others for food.”
3.1.2. Regulating services
From the oral testimonies, we identified two regulatory services of the wetlands – flood control and water purification. PM (32) explained “If the wetlands degrade, the waters in monsoon will flood our houses.” HT (70) said “People who went to work in the swamp did not need to carry water with them because the swamp water was available. It was like filtered water.”
3.1.3. Cultural services
Residents shared that the wetlands provided them with the opportunity to reflect on life while younger children enjoyed recreational activities. 49 year old SD shared how children in the village created doll houses and dolls made out of mud taken from the wetland whereas young adults used the wetland space as social bonding sites. On the other hand, the wetlands inspired reflection among interviewees evident in their words. 32 year old ST for instance stated how the swamp brings prosperity to them and gives them a chance to cultivate “food of self-respect”.
3.1.4. Supporting services
We identified two supporting services which are nutrient retention and sustenance of fish stocks from the oral testimonies. 35 year old PS, for example, stated how the waterlogged lands became fertile after recession of the floods thus facilitating farming. 30 year old KK on the other hand explained how the wetland created a conducive environment for fish to breed in.
3.2. Change in the wetland quality and its human cost
Respondents perceived a steady degradation in the wetland’s quality in the last 20 years with the trend worsening rapidly during the last three to four years. From their testimonies, it is apparent that this change has affected their livelihoods and living in significant ways.
58 year old ST stated that the swamp was four times bigger two decades back compared to the present extent. Majority of the respondents reported a reduction in the quantity of products obtained from the wetland. “Tides used to come into the swamp through the canal which connected it with Ganges bringing in a variety of fish like Bele, Koi, Singhi, Punti and their eggs,” said 50 year old GB while describing how the wetland functioned in the past. Large sized prawns also used to be available which fetched significant monetary returns. Post-monsoon, the flood waters in the swamp would slowly recede through the canal into Ganges exposing nutrient-rich soil fit for harvesting. “Paddy like amon, neramon and beta, pulses, okhra, potato, cauliflower, onion, leafy vegetables, gourds and water melons could be cultivated in the past. Bags full of food used to be harvested during April,” reminisced 50 year old GB. Availability of molluscs and edible wetland plants as well as Aeschynmene which provides fibre reportedly decreased substantially over the years.
According to the respondents, the swamp water seemed to have degraded in quality as well due to loss of its connection with Ganges over the last 15-20 years. This had increased the duration of waterlogging and created an unhygienic condition. “The swamp water is rotting. People get skin diseases now,” says senior citizen DB while teenager P remembered how clean the water used to be in the canal during his childhood when it was connected to Ganges “The water was so clear that if one dropped a coin, it would be visible right till it hit the bottom. I used to dive into the canal from the bridge to take a bath. The water has now become blackish especially since the last three to four years.” The respondent’s testimonies suggest that fish diversity and abundance had decreased substantially over the years, especially Nandus nandus, Ophisternon bengalense, Glossogobius giuris and Mystys vittatus as 65 year old DB shared. “I still remember how my grandmother used to come back with baskets full of crabs in the past which she used to sell for 2-3 INR/kg whereas now we sell them for 100 INR/kg,” reminisced 49 year old SD implying that crabs had become scarce. Fish spawns were reported to be dying in the wetland as the outflow of the swamp water got blocked. Aquatic weeds and leaches had instead proliferated in recent times and the water had become unsuitable for irrigation. 52 year old U shared, “We don’t drink water from the swamp anymore.”
The degradation in the quality of the wetland had changed the way of life in the village. GB, who is 50 years old now, shared that he did not have to go outside for work as a younger person as they could get expensive fish like Heteropneustes fossilis for free from the swamp as well as pulses and a variety of vegetables. “Those days are gone now. If I go for fishing now, I will catch fish worth less than 250 INR whereas if I work as a hired labourer I will earn atleast 250-300 INR/day. Fish from the swamp was so integral to our diet. The fish catch used to be huge. Even after feeding the whole family, the remaining could be sold for 300-500 INR/day during monsoon.” Similar sentiments were echoed by other respondents and many reported leaving agriculture and fishing due to lower economic returns and thus, being forced to work as hired labourers. Due to lower productivity, many had sold off their land to overcome financial shocks. “Businessmen buy these lands at lesser prices (8,00,000-10,00,000 INR/bigha) taking advantage of unemployed people who are in need of cash and thus sell them at a huge cost (2,00,000 – 3,00,000 INR/katha),” shared PS (35)[6]. Some land-owners also decided to convert parts of their water-logged land to small-scale aquaculture.
During the study year, the region received excessive rainfall due to cyclonic depressions over Bay of Bengal which further aggravated the situation. Due to the blockage of the channel connecting the wetland to the river, excess rain water could not flow out, prolonging the water logged situation. The standing water from the land usually starts receding by end of October yet GB’s land remained water-logged till mid-January, “In October the land must remain muddy but it has to lose its moisture after that if the onion yield is to be good. It is too late now.” The calamity even disrupted age-old cultural practices as reported by 38 year old RB, “By this time okhra plants become upright and even starts flowering. It takes atleast 15-20 days for the seeds to germinate. As soon as they do, we celebrate Makar Sankranti, a festival that marks the onset of the new harvest, a 250 year old tradition. But where is the harvest to celebrate this year?”
3.3. Drivers of change
Respondents unanimously identified presence of factories as the main factor causing degradation of the Dankuni wetland. According to most respondents, the emergence of factories in the last 15-20 years coincided with the beginning of degradation and wetland shrinkage as they were constructed by filling up parts of the wetland. HT, a senior citizen, explained, “The swamp has shrunk to a fourth of what it used to be due to the construction of factories. 25 years back, this was all swamp,” he said pointing to the horizon and beyond on both sides. 34 year old KT detailed, “The first factory was constructed in the wetland 15 years back. Gradually, other factories also emerged.” ST added, “They dump sand, soil, ash and debris into the wetland everyday and this blocks the passage of water out of the swamp.” PM further explained, “The discharged solid waste materials have accumulated in the canal connecting the wetland to Ganges, making it significantly shallow and the waters stagnant.” The respondents mentioned that the sluice gate of the main canal was not functioning due to which wastewater released by the factories stayed locked inside the wetland. Large buffalo shelters constructed along the canal also added to the problems. “The cattle waste is discharged into the swamp. One can find syringes and broken pieces of glasses in the swamp nowadays,” said 50 year old TB.
3.4. Perceptions on threat mitigation
Almost all respondents said that the only way to restore the health of the wetlands is by dredging the canal that connects the wetland to the river. They also reported that at various times they had informed local politicians and administrative officials of the dire situation of the wetlands but to almost no avail. “They created a small outlet after we agitated but that is not enough. The sluice gate of the main canal has to be repaired. It is broken and clogged with debris. Some of us went there to clean it up but did not succeed,” said KK, himself a senior citizen. Respondents felt that the weed cleaning drives conducted by the
panchayat did not yield desired results. Lamenting on failed mitigation actions, 70 year old HT said “There are so many factors due to which the swamp is dying. Just cleaning water hyacinth is not enough. We are unable to farm but our MLAs and MPs do not bother. Nowadays factories run the government so the government will work to benefit them.” The respondents also thought that the onus of protecting the swamp lied with the local community as well. In this respect 32 year old ST stressed, “If the owners protest in unison, the government will have to respond. But if they sell off their land instead, how will the situation be rectified?” However, the views of 38 year old RB differed in this matter, “People do not raise their voices as this kind of destruction is being done by very powerful people at helm who have a lot of money. They will squash us like insects.” In addition, lands belonging to community members were often sold off without their knowledge. Similar processes were at work in other villages surrounding the wetland, which led to its degradation on the one hand and impacted the livelihoods and living of dependent communities on the other.