1. Hu, B., Guo, H., Zhou, P. & Shi, Z.L. Characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Nat Rev Microbiol 19, 141-154 (2021).
2. Pei, S., Yamana, T.K., Kandula, S., Galanti, M. & Shaman, J. Burden and characteristics of COVID-19 in the United States during 2020. Nature 598, 338-341 (2021).
3. Zhang, Q., et al. Life-Threatening COVID-19: Defective Interferons Unleash Excessive Inflammation. Med (N Y) 1, 14-20 (2020).
4. O'Driscoll, M., et al. Age-specific mortality and immunity patterns of SARS-CoV-2. Nature 590, 140-145 (2021).
5. Levin, A.T., et al. Assessing the age specificity of infection fatality rates for COVID-19: systematic review, meta-analysis, and public policy implications. Eur J Epidemiol 35, 1123-1138 (2020).
6. Brodin, P. Immune determinants of COVID-19 disease presentation and severity. Nat Med 27, 28-33 (2021).
7. Casanova, J.L., Su, H.C. & Effort, C.H.G. A Global Effort to Define the Human Genetics of Protective Immunity to SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Cell 181, 1194-1199 (2020).
8. Bastard, P., et al. Autoantibodies neutralizing type I IFNs are present in ~4% of uninfected individuals over 70 years old and account for ~20% of COVID-19 deaths. Sci Immunol 6(2021).
9. Bastard, P., et al. Autoantibodies against type I IFNs in patients with life-threatening COVID-19. Science 370(2020).
10. Asano, T., et al. X-linked recessive TLR7 deficiency in ~1% of men under 60 years old with life-threatening COVID-19. Sci Immunol 6(2021).
11. Zhang, Q., et al. Inborn errors of type I IFN immunity in patients with life-threatening COVID-19. Science 370(2020).
12. Khanmohammadi, S., Rezaei, N., Khazaei, M. & Shirkani, A. A Case of Autosomal Recessive Interferon Alpha/Beta Receptor Alpha Chain (IFNAR1) Deficiency with Severe COVID-19. J Clin Immunol (2021).
13. Schmidt, A., et al. TBK1 and TNFRSF13B mutations and an autoinflammatory disease in a child with lethal COVID-19. NPJ Genom Med 6, 55 (2021).
14. Abolhassani, H., et al. X-Linked TLR7 Deficiency Underlies Critical COVID-19 Pneumonia in a Male Patient with Ataxia-Telangiectasia. J Clin Immunol (2021).
15. Casanova, J.L. & Abel, L. Mechanisms of viral inflammation and disease in humans. Science 374, 1080-1086 (2021).
16. Goncalves, D., et al. Antibodies against type I interferon: detection and association with severe clinical outcome in COVID-19 patients. Clin Transl Immunology 10, e1327 (2021).
17. Koning, R., et al. Autoantibodies against type I interferons are associated with multi-organ failure in COVID-19 patients. Intensive Care Med 47, 704-706 (2021).
18. Troya, J., et al. Neutralizing Autoantibodies to Type I IFNs in >10% of Patients with Severe COVID-19 Pneumonia Hospitalized in Madrid, Spain. J Clin Immunol 41, 914-922 (2021).
19. van der Wijst, M.G.P., et al. Type I interferon autoantibodies are associated with systemic immune alterations in patients with COVID-19. Sci Transl Med 13, eabh2624 (2021).
20. Vazquez, S.E., et al. Neutralizing Autoantibodies to Type I Interferons in COVID-19 Convalescent Donor Plasma. J Clin Immunol 41, 1169-1171 (2021).
21. Wang, E.Y., et al. Diverse functional autoantibodies in patients with COVID-19. Nature 595, 283-288 (2021).
22. Abers, M.S., et al. Neutralizing type-I interferon autoantibodies are associated with delayed viral clearance and intensive care unit admission in patients with COVID-19. Immunol Cell Biol 99, 917-921 (2021).
23. Chauvineau-Grenier, A., et al. Autoantibodies neutralizing type I interferons in 20% of COVID-19 deaths in a French hospital. Res Sq (2021).
24. Solanich, X., et al. Pre-existing Autoantibodies Neutralizing High Concentrations of Type I Interferons in Almost 10% of COVID-19 Patients Admitted to Intensive Care in Barcelona. J Clin Immunol (2021).
25. Raadsen, M.P., et al. Interferon-α2 Auto-antibodies in Convalescent Plasma Therapy for COVID-19. Journal of Clinical Immunology (2021).
26. Chang, S.E., et al. New-onset IgG autoantibodies in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Nat Commun 12, 5417 (2021).
27. Ziegler, C.G.K., et al. Impaired local intrinsic immunity to SARS-CoV-2 infection in severe COVID-19. Cell 184, 4713-4733 e4722 (2021).
28. Acosta-Ampudia, Y., et al. COVID-19 convalescent plasma composition and immunological effects in severe patients. J Autoimmun 118, 102598 (2021).
29. Carapito, R., et al. Identification of driver genes for critical forms of COVID-19 in a deeply phenotyped young patient cohort. Sci Transl Med, eabj7521 (2021).
30. Bastard, P., et al. Preexisting autoantibodies to type I IFNs underlie critical COVID-19 pneumonia in patients with APS-1. J Exp Med 218(2021).
31. van der Wijst, M.G.P., et al. Type I interferon autoantibodies are associated with systemic immune alterations in patients with COVID-19. Sci Transl Med (2021).
32. Galani, I.E., et al. Untuned antiviral immunity in COVID-19 revealed by temporal type I/III interferon patterns and flu comparison. Nat Immunol 22, 32-40 (2021).
33. Sposito, B., et al. The interferon landscape along the respiratory tract impacts the severity of COVID-19. Cell 184, 4953-4968 e4916 (2021).
34. Lopez, J., et al. Early nasal type I IFN immunity against SARS-CoV-2 is compromised in patients with autoantibodies against type I IFNs. J Exp Med 218(2021).
35. Blanco-Melo, D., et al. Imbalanced Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Drives Development of COVID-19. Cell 181, 1036-1045 e1039 (2020).
36. Israelow, B., et al. Mouse model of SARS-CoV-2 reveals inflammatory role of type I interferon signaling. J Exp Med 217(2020).
37. Doffinger, R., et al. Autoantibodies to interferon-gamma in a patient with selective susceptibility to mycobacterial infection and organ-specific autoimmunity. Clin Infect Dis 38, e10-14 (2004).
38. Hoflich, C., et al. Naturally occurring anti-IFN-gamma autoantibody and severe infections with Mycobacterium cheloneae and Burkholderia cocovenenans. Blood 103, 673-675 (2004).
39. Kampmann, B., et al. Acquired predisposition to mycobacterial disease due to autoantibodies to IFN-gamma. J Clin Invest 115, 2480-2488 (2005).
40. Puel, A., et al. Recurrent staphylococcal cellulitis and subcutaneous abscesses in a child with autoantibodies against IL-6. J Immunol 180, 647-654 (2008).
41. Puel, A., et al. Autoantibodies against IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-22 in patients with chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis and autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I. J Exp Med 207, 291-297 (2010).
42. Ku, C.L., Chi, C.Y., von Bernuth, H. & Doffinger, R. Autoantibodies against cytokines: phenocopies of primary immunodeficiencies? Hum Genet 139, 783-794 (2020).
43. Kisand, K., et al. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis in APECED or thymoma patients correlates with autoimmunity to Th17-associated cytokines. J Exp Med 207, 299-308 (2010).
44. Rosen, L.B., et al. Nocardia-induced granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor is neutralized by autoantibodies in disseminated/extrapulmonary nocardiosis. Clin Infect Dis 60, 1017-1025 (2015).
45. Casanova, J.L. & Abel, L. Lethal Infectious Diseases as Inborn Errors of Immunity: Toward a Synthesis of the Germ and Genetic Theories. Annu Rev Pathol 16, 23-50 (2021).
46. Bastard, P., et al. Auto-antibodies to type I IFNs can underlie adverse reactions to yellow fever live attenuated vaccine. J Exp Med 218(2021).
47. Morabia, A., Ten Have, T. & Landis, J.R. Empirical evaluation of the influence of control selection schemes on relative risk estimation: the Welsh nickel workers study. Occup Environ Med 52, 489-493 (1995).
48. Bartleson, J.M., et al. SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 and the Ageing Immune System. Nat Aging 1, 769-782 (2021).
49. Splunter, M.V., et al. Plasmacytoid dendritic cell and myeloid dendritic cell function in ageing: A comparison between elderly and young adult women. PLoS One 14, e0225825 (2019).
50. Schultze, J.L. & Aschenbrenner, A.C. COVID-19 and the human innate immune system. Cell 184, 1671-1692 (2021).
51. Stark, G.R. & Darnell, J.E., Jr. The JAK-STAT pathway at twenty. Immunity 36, 503-514 (2012).
52. Pierce, C.A., et al. Natural mucosal barriers and COVID-19 in children. JCI Insight 6(2021).
53. Manry, J., et al. Evolutionary genetic dissection of human interferons. J Exp Med 208, 2747-2759 (2011).
54. Ng, C.T., et al. Blockade of interferon Beta, but not interferon alpha, signaling controls persistent viral infection. Cell Host Microbe 17, 653-661 (2015).
55. Vinh, D.C., et al. Harnessing Type I IFN Immunity Against SARS-CoV-2 with Early Administration of IFN-beta. J Clin Immunol 41, 1425-1442 (2021).
56. Weinreich, D.M., et al. REGN-COV2, a Neutralizing Antibody Cocktail, in Outpatients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 384, 238-251 (2021).
57. Bastard, P., et al. Interferon-beta Therapy in a Patient with Incontinentia Pigmenti and Autoantibodies against Type I IFNs Infected with SARS-CoV-2. J Clin Immunol 41, 931-933 (2021).
58. Monk, P.D., et al. Safety and efficacy of inhaled nebulised interferon beta-1a (SNG001) for treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet Respir Med 9, 196-206 (2021).