Delinquent behavior refers to an action the commitment of which confronts the offender to the laws of the civil society (1). Some of the delinquent behaviors include theft, property damage, physical aggression, selling drugs, burglary, robbery, vandalism, and avoiding school (2), which could lead to poor educational performance, school absenteeism (3), escape from home (4), substance use, depression/anxiety, self-harm (5), and even increased probability of unnatural death caused by suicide, murder, and alcohol abuse (6, 7). Even though the problem behaviors rate has declined in some countries (e.g., the United States) (8), it is still among the widespread risk behaviors in many societies (9–11).
A broad range of behavioral problems such as antisocial behavior (12), drug use (13), and alcohol consumption (14) appears during adolescents. In the same vein, some records show that engagement in antisocial behavior comes to a climax from mid-to-late- adolescence’ years (15). For example, 1,154,096 youths were put in jail in the US in 2010 (15). In addition, a study indicated that among 50 percent of twelfth-grade students had used illegal substances during their lifespan, 70% had drunk alcohol, and 19% smoked currently (14). Further, several studies examined problem behaviors among adolescents in Iran, which were primarily epidemiological (e.g., 16, 17, 18). For instance, Rashid (18) studied the prevalence of problem behaviors among adolescents in Iran; results indicated that hookah smoking (51.5%), cigarette smoking (35.2%), beating outside the house (except school) (28.1%), and drinking (27.4%) were respectively the most common problem behaviors among adolescents. A high frequency of engagement in problem behavior may lead to some inconvenience. For example, adolescents involved in problem behaviors are more likely to have problems in different areas, such as lower psychosocial adaptation or physical health, poorer life expectations, and a difficult transition into adulthood (19). Adolescent problem behaviors may also result in long-term developmental problems, continuing to adulthood, though these behaviors may not become chronic for most of them (20).
Several theories have been developed to explain delinquency in adolescents, including General Strain Theory (21, 22), Object Relations Theory (23), Interactional Theory (24), Developmental Theory (25), Social Control Theory (26, 27), Social Learning Theory (28), Social Development Model (29), and Problem Behavior Theory (30).
PBT that is the main focus of the current study, is one of the most comprehensive theories regarding the etiology of problem behaviors. PBT is a social–psychological framework that explains the association between psychosocial protective and risk factors and involvement in problem behaviors (e.g., delinquent behavior, substance use, problem drinking, and early sexual intercourse) (31). According to PBT, problem behaviors result from the interaction between risk factors such as opportunity risk availability (e.g., exposure to risk opportunities, such as gang membership) and individual vulnerability (e.g., individual-level features, such as stress, depression, low self-esteem, or perceived hindered access to the achievement of a prosperous life) and protective factors (e.g., the support given by friends, teachers, and neighbors) (32). While risk factors increase the likelihood of involvement in risk behaviors (e.g., providing a model for problematic behavior and rising possibilities of involvement in risk behaviors), protective factors diminish the chance of engagement in risk behaviors (e.g., presenting a pattern of prosocial behaviors, social and personal supervision and control, and supportive social environment). In addition, the simultaneous presence of more risk factors and less protective factors increases the likelihood of the adolescent’s involvement in problem behaviors (Figure 1) (33, 34).
In the last decades, studies were conducted in various countries to examine the generality of the explanatory model of adolescents' problem behavior based on PBT. The significant merit of such studies is to test the adequacy of an explanatory model, which can be used in different societies (35). An explanatory model's generality across different nations accentuates their dynamic or genotype commonality than phenotypic differences (36). For example, despite a significant difference between the United States and the Republic of China in the social, political, and economic system, Jessor et al. (34) showed that problem behavior is significantly influenced by the same protective and risk factors in both countries and for both genders. Also, Vazsonyi et al. (37) supported the similarities in PBT's explanation of problem behavior in Asian, Eastern, Western European, North American, and Eurasian/Muslim cultures. Thus, the results of these studies make a convincing case for the idea that the explanatory model of PBT has, to a large extent, cross-national generality.
Notwithstanding, there are remarkable differences in culture and educational system between Iran and the countries where PBT has been shown to have generality (specifically Western countries) (38–43). Eastern cultures encourage low arousal emotions, which is in contrast to Western cultures (44); the restriction of emotional expression in Eastern cultures might account for the higher levels of callous-unemotional traits in Asian children compared to children in the United States (45, 46). Additionally, in Iran, the educational system is under the influence of traditional and religious conventions. Iran is one of the rare countries where the Shi’ism stance about ethics like gender segregation is widely used in educational institutions. Further, Islamic values have a considerable impact on adolescents' behavior in Iran. For instance, these norms have limited opportunities to establish relations with the opposite sex (47, 48). In Iran, traditional ethics restrict individuals' independent decision makings, and authority figures like parents, teachers, and elders play an essential role in youngsters' critical decisions (e.g., marrying, buying a house, and choosing a career), so adolescents' behaviors are more influenced by authority figures who encourage them toward prosocial behaviors (48, 49).
On the other hand, in recent years, because of the rapid widening of technology in Iran, most adolescents are getting familiar with Western cultures and imitate them, which is in contrast with their parents' system of beliefs and values. Thus, adolescents experience more conflict with their parents and may experience parental rejection and deprivation from vital support sources. Furthermore, compared to other countries such as the United States and the Republic of China, Iran is a low-income country, and Iranians have been suffering from more severe economic hardship, a factor that increases the rate of crime and delinquent behaviors (50). Financial hardship leads parents to withstand significant distress, and it disrupts the parent-adolescent relationship. As a result, parents lose their control over adolescents' behavior that might increase the risk of adolescents' engagement in problem behaviors (Gutman et al.51). Finally, in contrast to individualistic societies such as Western countries, where seeking help is considered a weakness and a disruption to others, in collectivistic nations like Iran, seeking support and expression of feeling are more acceptable (52). Therefore, considering these significant differences in cultural, social, and religious aspects between Iran and other countries, a theory from a different culture cannot be generalized to Iran, and a separate study is needed to test the generality of PBT as an explanation of delinquent behaviors of adolescents in Iran.
Still, to our knowledge, in Iran, no study has employed an integrative theory-based psychosocial model to comprehensively examine problem behaviors among adolescents. Therefore, the current study is designed to examine if the explanatory model for problem behavior involvement (i.e., PBT) accounts similarly for Iranian adolescents' problem behaviors. In this vein, we first explore whether risk factors (i.e., individual vulnerability and opportunity risk availability) in each of the four social contexts (i.e., family, peers, school, and neighborhood) explain delinquent behavior; then, we will examine whether support moderates the influence of risk factors on delinquent behavior. Specifically, based on PBT theory, it is hypothesized that delinquent behaviors would be positively related to individual vulnerability and opportunity risk availability and negatively associated with perceived support.