Toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia continues to spread and cause considerable economic losses in small ruminant farms. The objectives of this study were to determine the seroprevalence and highlight the risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus infection in small ruminants in Cameroon. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 200 small ruminant farms during a period from April to October 2021. A total of 1061 small ruminants were sampled and the sera obtained were analysed using the indirect multi-species ELISA test for toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia at the national veterinary laboratory. A questionnaire was constructed to collect information about flock management and animal risk factors possibly associated with Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus infection in goats and sheep. Overall, 329 small ruminants tested positive for Toxoplasma gondii and 45 for Chlamydia abortus with a prevalence of 31.01% (95% CI: 28.23 - 33.79) for toxoplasmosis and 4.24% (95% CI: 3.03 - 5.45) for chlamydia abortus, respectively. However, a significant co-infection of 1.82% (95% CI: 0.37 - 3.27) was obtained between Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus (p=0.02). Univariate analysis showed that region (p=0.0001), species (p=0.0001), sex (p=0.0002), age (p=0.0002) and breed (p=0.01) were the risk factors associated with the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminant farms in Cameroon; while breed (p=0.0001) and the presence of abortion (p=0.0003) were identified as risk factors strongly associated with the seroprevalence of Chlamydia abortus . These results could be used to implement efficient management measures to prevent and control Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus infection in goats and sheep in Cameroon.
Research Article
Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus infection in domestic small ruminants in Cameroon
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1418706/v1
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Seroprevalence
risk factors
Toxoplasma gondii
Chlamydia abortus
small ruminant farmers
Cameroon
Small ruminant production plays an important role in Cameroon's pastoral economy, since it accounts for 20% of the protein needs of Cameroonians (Njoya, 2010). Despite numerous government efforts, this production remains insufficient to meet the demand of the national population (MINEPIA, 2011, 2018b) because it faces many constraints such as socio-cultural constraints, dietary factors, poorly performing genetic material and the pathological factor (FAO, 2018; MINEPIA, 2018a). The latter is responsible for 30% of livestock losses in Cameroon (MINEPIA, 2018a). Among these multiple pathologies, abortive pathologies are a source of significant numerical and economic losses on farms (Menzies, 2011). Among the causes of abortion in small ruminants, toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia appear to be the most important causes of abortion(Khamassi et al., 2009; Elandalousi et al., 2015; CREMOUX, POUGET and LACZ, 2017).
Several studies have investigated the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus in sheep and goats (Al-Qudah et al., 2004; Tasawar, 2010; Bamba et al., 2012; Lahmar et al., 2015; Qin et al., 2015; Sidibe et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020, 2021; Malal, Karagül and Akar, 2020; Fayez et al., 2021; María de la Luz et al., 2022). These studies point to the multiplicity and complexity of abortifacient infections either at the individual or herd level. The clinical manifestations and epidemiological characteristics of abortions are not specific. At best, these elements can point to a suspicion, hence the need for laboratory analysis. Analytical diagnosis uses direct methods with a search for the causal agent or indirect methods (search for antibodies) (Sachse et al., 2005; María de la Luz et al., 2022).
In Cameroon, some seroprevalence surveys of toxoplasmosis have been conducted among pregnant women (Njunda et al., 2011; Guemgne et al., 2019). However, the seroprevalence study of chlamydia was carried out in cattle in 1985 (Domenech, Trap and Gaumont, 1985). To date, no study has reported the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus in small ruminants in Cameroon. Determining the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus and the risk factors associated with infection could contribute to the control of these diseases in animals and humans in Cameroon.
Study area
The study was carried out in the northern regions of Cameroon, namely the Adamawa, North and Far North regions (Fig. 1). These regions are well known for their involvement in ruminant production in Cameroon as more than 75% of the national small ruminant population is located in these regions. The production system of small ruminants in these areas was mainly extensive and they were mainly raised for meat production. This part of Cameroon represents a prime area for improving small ruminant production in Cameroon.
Study Design
A cross-sectional study was conducted in 200 small ruminant farms during a period from April to October 2021. A total of 1061 small ruminants were obtained according to the formula proposed by Musallam et al (2015) (MUSALLAM et al., 2015) with 50% expected seroprevalence at the herd level and at the individual level for abortive chlamydia and toxoplasmosis. An absolute precision of 5% was applied with a 95% confidence interval (CI).
Minimum sample size of flocks
- N : Sample size (number of farms to be selected) ;
- Z : Surface where we find (1- α) of the normal curve (Z) (Z=1,65) ;
- P: Known or attributed prevalence.
- HSe : Sensitivity of the ELISA used in the herd (HSe =1) ;
- HSp : Specificity of the ELISA used in the herd (HSp = 1) ;
- d: Absolute accuracy of 10%, with a confidence interval of 95%.
Minimum sample size of animals in selected herds
- K : Minimum number of animals to be sampled on each farm;
- P : Probability of detecting at least one positive animal (prevalence);
- d : Expected number of infected animals on a farm;
- N : Number of farms;
- For chlamydia the minimum number of animals was 8 depending on the number of animals supplied by the breeder on the selected farms;
- For toxoplasmosis the minimum number of animals was 5 depending on the number of animals provided by the breeder in the selected farms.
Sample and data collection
The sheep and goat flocks were not selected strictly at random, but a certain representativeness of the national herd was sought by diversifying the types of flock (sedentary or transhumant) and the geographical areas. On this occasion, a questionnaire was filled in with the aim of bringing out information on the herd (the number of adult females, the recent introduction of animals (including partial returns from transhumance), the number of abortions and stillbirths during the year and the pathology of the young from birth to one month). This questionnaire also allowed to trace the reproductive career of the female in chronology, with emphasis on any abortive episodes and their clinical consequences. During the survey, the investigator(s), through technical observations of the farms, characterized the hygiene level of the farms studied on a scale of 1 to 4 (4=Very clean, 3=Clean, 2=Dirty, 1=Very dirty) (Laanen et al., 2010). A blood sample was then taken during data collection. The blood collected in dry tubes was left to rest for 30 min. The fresh serum obtained was collected with a micropipette and divided into aliquots in identified cryotubes which were then transported to the laboratory in a cooler containing carbohydrate ice and stored in a freezer at -20°C pending analysis.
Serological examination
Serum samples were analysed with the indirect multi-species ELISA for toxoplasmosis (ID.vet, France), which detects IgG antibodies to T. gondii and abortive chlamydia (Indirect multi-species ELISA kit for the detection of anti-MOMP antibodies). Briefly, serum samples and controls were diluted 1:10 and tested. The microplate ELISA reader measured the optical densities (OD) at 450 nm. The ODs obtained were used to calculate the Substrate/Product percentage (S/P %) by the following equations: S/P (%) = (OD sample /DOpc) ×100 and S/P (%) = (OD sample – DONC/DOpc- DONC) ×100 respectively for Chlamydia abortus and Toxoplasma gondii. For Chlamydia abortus, any sample with an S/P% >60% was considered seropositive; if the S/P% was between ≥50 and≤60, the result was considered doubtful, while any sample with an S/P% <50% was classified as seronegative. Furthermore, for the interpretation of the ODs obtained for Toxoplasma gondii, samples with an S/P% less than or equal to 40% were considered negative. If the S/P% was between 40% and 50%, the result was considered doubtful and considered positive if the S/P% was greater than or equal to 50%.
Data analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using R i386 4.1.2 and Sphinx 5.1 for Windows. Univariate analysis was performed to assess associations between seropositivity and small ruminant breeding characteristics as well as the level of knowledge, attitude and practice of farmers. The chi-square and Pearson's test were performed for categorical variables. Variables showing a significative association with seropositivity for T. gondii and Chlamydia abortus (p-value < 0.05) were selected for further analysis in order to classify them as risk factors.
Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus at flock and individual (animal) level.
A total of 200 small ruminant flocks in the northern regions of Cameroon were included in the study. 74 flocks tested positive for Toxoplasma gondii and 6 flocks positive for Chlamydia abortus with a flock level prevalence of 37% (95% CI: 30.31 - 43.69) and 3% (95% CI: 0.64 - 5.36), respectively (Table 1). At the individual level, 1061 small ruminants over one month of age were analysed. 329 animals tested positive for Toxoplasma gondii and 45 for Chlamydia abortus with an individual prevalence of 31.01% (95% CI: 28.23 - 33.79) for Toxoplasmosis and 4.24% (95% CI: 3.03 - 5.45) for abortive chlamydia, respectively. However, a co-infection of 1.82% (95% CI: 0.37 - 3.27) was obtained between Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus with a significant difference (p=0.02) in the univariate analysis (Table 2).
Risk factor analysis
The flock and individual (animal) risk factors associated with seropositivity in sheep and goats in a univariate analysis at P<0.05 are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii at the flock level was significantly correlated with the production targets (p<0.05) and the level of hygiene (p<0.05) on the farms and that of Chlamydia abortus was significantly correlated with the degree of abortion on the farms (p=0.0003) (Table 3). A significant correlation was observed between the prevalence of toxoplasmosis at the individual level and region (p=0.0001), species (p=0.0001), sex (p=0.0002), age (p=0.0002) and breed (p=0.01). For Chlamydia abortus prevalence, a significant correlation was observed with breed (p=0.0001) of small ruminants reared in the northern regions of Cameroon (Table 4).
Small ruminant breeding appears to be an opportunity for income generation in the context of poverty alleviation in some African countries (Duteurtre et al., 2002; Dedieu et al., 2011; Iñiguez, 2011; Orskov, 2011; MUSALLAM et al., 2015) . This is the case in Cameroon, where small ruminants (sheep and goats) play a very important role in the pastoral economy, accounting for 20% of the protein needs of Cameroonians (Njoya, 2010). This production is mainly concentrated in the northern regions of Cameroon (INS, 2019). Toxoplasmosis has a wide distribution in these areas unlike abortive chlamydia and is very harmful to both human and animal health. In combination with this, they cause significant economic losses in the livestock industry in these areas. This study provides substantial epidemiological data on the seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia in small ruminant livestock in Cameroon.
The individual seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii obtained in the present study (31.01% (329/1061) with 35.93% in sheep and 25.91% in goats) was lower than those obtained in Burkina Faso (58.8%) (Bamba et al., 2012), in Tunisia (36.8%) (Lahmar et al., 2015), in Spain (37.31%) (García-Bocanegra et al., 2013) and in China (61.65%) (Li et al., 2021). However, lower prevalence have been found in small ruminants in Mexico (14.8%) (María de la Luz et al., 2022), in Mali (4.47 %) (Sidibe et al., 2019), in Pakistan (19.88%) (Tasawar, 2010), in Nigeria (11.29%) (Kamani, Mani and Egwu, 2010) and in Bangladesh (12.2%) (Sah et al., 2018). The different sero-detection techniques used could explain the differences observed. Moreover, the studies carried out in hot zones sometimes reaching temperatures of 45⁰C, did not favour the survival of oocysts in the environment for more than an hour thus limiting the indirect mode of transmission (Kamani, Mani and Egwu, 2010; Bamba et al., 2012; Sidibe et al., 2019). For abortive chlamydia, the seroprevalence of 4.24% obtained was lower than those obtained in Eastern Saudi Arabia (21.7%) (Fayez et al., 2021), in Western Turkey (25.81%) (Malal, Karagül and Akar, 2020) in Jordan (19.06%) (Al-Qudah et al., 2004). This remains similar to that recorded in Mali (3.55%) (Sidibe et al., 2019). This difference results from the variation in climatic conditions in the study areas noted by some authors, but also from differences between sheep and goat breeds, husbandry practices, hygiene, timing of sampling and the serological test used (Qin et al., 2015; Fayez et al., 2021). However, this study showed no significant difference in the seroprevalence of Chlamydia abortus antibodies between sheep and goats at the individual level.
A co-infection of 1.82% (95% CI: 0.37 - 3.27) was obtained between Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus in the present study. The presence of Chlamydia abortus in small ruminant farms would significantly (p=0.02) increase the risk of Toxoplasma gondii infestation. This co-infection was reported in the 2013 study by Romano and Coppens, where it was shown that Toxoplasma and Chlamydia tend to conform to their respective intracellular developmental programs, regardless of the presence of the other organism in the cell. The normal growth of each pathogen is highly dependent on the ability of the pathogen to maintain a threshold level of interaction between its vacuole and host cell organelles (Romano and Coppens, 2013). However, an infection with Chlamydia abortus could create a depressed state in the animals, thus allowing an infestation with Toxoplasma gondii.
Univariate analysis in this study showed that region (p=0.0001), species (p=0.0001), sex (p=0.0002), age (p=0.0002) and breed (p=0.01) were the risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence on small ruminant farms in Cameroon. The breed (p=0.0001) and the presence of abortion (p=0.0003) were identified as risk factors strongly associated with the seroprevalence of Chlamydia abortus. The Adamawa region (46.04% (95% CI: 39.16 - 52.9) had significantly (p=0.0001) high Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence. This region has a savannah climate with a dry winter according to the Köppen-Geiger classification, unlike the other regions in the study (North and Far North). Rainfall in this region is much higher in summer than in winter. Over the year, the average temperature in Adamawa is 21.8°C and the average rainfall is 951.9 mm (Données-Mondiale, 2022). This type of climate favours the development and expansion of this pest (Qin et al., 2015; Fayez et al., 2021). The sheep species was significantly more infected (35.93% (95% CI: 31.87 - 39.97)) (p=0.0001) with Toxoplasma gondii than the goats in these areas. This result was similar to those obtained in Nigeria (Kamani, Mani and Egwu, 2010), in Southern Spain (García-Bocanegra et al., 2013) and in Tunisia (Lahmar et al., 2015). Sheep are generally associated with large cattle for grazing unlike goats, which favours greater contact with this infectious agent. Females (33.94% (95% CI: 30.60 - 37.26)) tested significantly more infested with Toxoplasma gondii than males as observed in the Lahmar study in Tunisia (Lahmar et al., 2015); probably due to greater sensitivity to protozoan parasites in females than in males (Alexander and Stimson, 1988).
Small ruminants aged 3-5 years were significantly more infested with Toxoplasma gondii than young animals (41.90% (95% CI: 36.16 - 47.64)). This observation was also highlighted by Qin et al. (2015) and was associated with continuous and increasing exposure to infectious oocytes in the environment (Qin et al., 2015). The Oudah breed in the sheep species was significantly more infected with Toxoplasma gondii (38.38%) than the other breeds and the Sahel goat in the goat species was more infected with Chlamydia abortus (33.33%). These breeds were used in sedentary, transhumant or nomadic farming systems which favours their permanent contact with these pathogens (Meyer, Faye and Karembe, 2004). The occurrence of abortions on small ruminant farms in our study was strongly associated with Chlamydia abortus infection as mentioned in the report of the Observatory and monitoring of the causes of abortions in ruminants Report 2019 (SCAR, 2020). This could be justified by the fact that Chlamydia abortus is the leading cause of abortion in small ruminants (the second being Campylobacter) although its prevalence was low in this study (Guillaume and Maud, 2017).
This study reports on the seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus on small ruminant farms in Cameroon. These two zoonotic pathogens are not well known to the populations of these regions and therefore represent a potential danger to farmers, their families, health professionals and consumers of animal protein in these regions. Although some farmers are aware of the risks associated with these diseases, there is a need for targeted community health education programs to minimize the transmission of zoonotic pathogens.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the agronomic and veterinary department of the ‘Université des Montagnes’ for their technical and logistical support.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Authors' contributions
J.K and F.G designed, structured and coordinated the study. R.N.C coordinated the fieldwork but also collected data with G.J.T.T and S.V.G. R.N.C and M.F.D extracted and analyzed the data. R.N.C and K.K.A.P prepared the first draft of the manuscript. J.K, F.G, and R.N.G.N critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.
Data Availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The ethics and scientific research committee of the Higher Institute of Health of Bangangté-Cameroon (N° UdM-BUR-CPR-2021/006) gave its ethical approval to this research. The regional delegations in charge of animal health allowed the survey in the three northern regions of Cameroon Adamawa (N°0020/21/RA/DREPIA/SRSV), North (N°0025 /21/RN/ DREPIA/SRSV) and Far North (N°0017/21/MINEPIA/ SG/DREN). Small ruminant farmers were informed of the purpose of the study and the approximate duration of the interview, and their informed consent was sought prior to their participation in the survey.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal interests or relationships that could have influenced the work presented in this article.
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- SCAR (2020) ‘Observatoire et suivi des causes d ’ avortements chez les ruminants Bilan 2019’. Available at: https://www.plateforme-esa.fr/sites/default/files/Résultats OSCAR 2019_VF.pdf.
- Sidibe S, Coulibaly K, Sery A, Fofana M, Sidibe S, Kanoute M. (2019) ‘Prévalence de la brucellose, chlamydiose et toxoplasmose chez les petits ruminants au Mali : résultats d’une enquête séro-épidemiologique’, Rev Mali Infect Microbiol, 13(1), pp. 1–9. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279978031_Seroprevalence_des_majeures_maladies_infectieuses_causant_l’avortement_chez_les_petits_ruminants.
- Mushtaq H. L., Zahida, T. (2010) ‘Seroprevalence of Toxoplasmosis in Sheep in Southern Punjab, Pakistan’, Pak Vet J., 30(2), pp. 91–94.
Table 1. Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia on small ruminant farms in the northern regions of Cameroon (Adamawa, North and Far North).
|
Variables |
N |
Toxoplasma gondii |
Chlamydia abortus |
||||
|
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
||
|
Flock prevalence |
200 |
74 (37) |
30.31 – 43.69 |
0.0001* |
6 (3) |
0,64 – 5.36 |
0.0001* |
|
Individual prevalence |
1061 |
329 (31.01) |
28.23 – 33.79 |
0.0001* |
45 (4.24) |
3,03 – 5.45 |
0.0001* |
Values in a column with "*" differ significantly at P < 0.05; CI= Confidence interval, N= total number of animals, n= number of positive animals.
Table 2. Univariate analysis of co-infection between Toxoplasma gondii and Chlamydia abortus in small ruminants in the northern regions of Cameroon (Adamawa, North and Far North).
|
Variables |
N |
Chlamydia abortus |
||
|
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
||
|
Toxoplasma gondii |
|
|
|
|
|
Doubtful |
37 |
1 (2.70) |
0.00 - 7.92 |
0.02*
|
|
Negative |
695 |
38 (5.47) |
3.77 - 7.15 |
|
|
Positive |
329 |
6 (1.82) |
0.37 - 3.27 |
|
Values in a column with "*" differ significantly at P < 0.05; CI= Confidence interval, N= total number of animals, n= number of positive animals
Table 3. Univariate analyses of the association between risk factors and herd-level seropositivity to toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia in the northern regions of Cameroon (Adamawa, North and Far North).
|
Variables |
N |
Toxoplasmosis |
Abortive chlamydia |
||||||||||||||
|
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
||||||||||||
|
Regions |
Adamawa |
50 |
23 (46) |
32.18 - 59.81 |
0.16 |
1 (2) |
0.00 - 5.88 |
0.40 |
|
||||||||
|
North |
81 |
23 (28.40) |
18.57 - 38.21 |
|
4 (4.94) |
0.22 - 9.65 |
|
|
|||||||||
|
Far North |
69 |
28 (40.58) |
28.99 - 52.16 |
|
1 (1.45) |
0.00 - 4.26 |
|
|
|||||||||
|
Breeding objectives |
Financial |
139 |
72 (51.80) |
43.49 - 60.10 |
0.05* |
5 (3.60) |
0.50 - 6.69 |
0.13 |
|||||||||
|
Consomption |
51 |
16 (31.37) |
18.63 - 44.10 |
2 (3.92) |
0.00 - 9.24 |
||||||||||||
|
Pleasure |
10 |
1 (10) |
0.00 - 28.59 |
1 (10) |
0.00 - 28.59 |
||||||||||||
|
Number of small ruminants in farms |
< 10 |
45 |
15 (33.33) |
19.56 - 47.10 |
0.25 |
1 (2.22) |
0.00 - 6.53 |
0.56 |
|||||||||
|
10-30 |
131 |
53 (40.46) |
40.45 - 32.05 |
5 (3.82) |
0.53 - 7.10 |
||||||||||||
|
> 30 |
24 |
6 (25) |
7.67 - 42.32 |
0 (0) |
- |
||||||||||||
|
Power supply mode |
Grazing |
180 |
66 (36.67) |
29.62 - 43.71 |
0.52 |
5 (2.78) |
0.37 - 5.17 |
0.58 |
|||||||||
|
Zero grazing |
20 |
8 (40) |
18.53 - 61.47 |
1 (5) |
0.00 - 14.55 |
||||||||||||
|
Watering |
Water court |
182 |
68 (37. 36) |
30.33 - 44.39 |
0.49 |
5 (2.75) |
0.37 - 5.12 |
0.50 |
|||||||||
|
Well water |
18 |
6 (33.33) |
11.55 - 55.11 |
|
1 (5.56) |
0.00 - 16.13 |
|
||||||||||
|
Hygiene level |
Own |
48 |
12 (25) |
12.75 - 37.25 |
0.05* |
2 (4.17) |
0.00 - 9.82 |
0.85 |
|||||||||
|
Very clean |
8 |
2 (25) |
0.00 - 55 |
0 (0) |
- |
||||||||||||
|
Dirty |
134 |
54 (40.30) |
31.99 - 48.60 |
4 (2.99) |
0.10 - 5.86 |
||||||||||||
|
Very dirty |
10 |
6 (60) |
29.63 - 90.36 |
0 (0) |
- |
||||||||||||
|
Presence of abortions |
Yes |
193 |
71 (36.78) |
29.98 - 43.59 |
0.53 |
4 (2.07) |
0.06 - 4.08 |
0.0003* |
|||||||||
|
No |
7 |
4 (42.85) |
6.19 - 79.51 |
|
2 (28.57) |
0.00 - 62.03 |
|
||||||||||
Values in a column with "*" differ significantly at P < 0.05; CI= Confidence interval, N= total number of animals, n= number of positive animals.
Table 4. Univariate analysis of the association between risk factors and individual seropositivity to toxoplasmosis and abortive chlamydia in the northern regions of Cameroon (Adamawa, North and Far North)
|
Variables |
N |
Toxoplasmosis |
Abortive chlamydia |
|||||
|
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
Prevalence n (%) |
95 % CI |
P-value |
|||
|
Region |
Adamawa |
202 |
93 (46.04) |
39.16 - 52.91 |
0.0001* |
5 (2.48) |
0.33 - 4.61 |
0.14 |
|
North |
476 |
146 (30.01) |
26.53 - 34.81 |
18 (3.78) |
2.06 - 5.49 |
|||
|
Far North |
202 |
90 (23.50) |
19.25 - 27.74 |
22 (5.74) |
3.41 - 8.07 |
|||
|
Species |
Sheep |
540 |
194 (35.93) |
31.87 - 39.97 |
0.0001* |
25 (4.63) |
2.18 - 5.48 |
0.52 |
|
Goats |
521 |
135 (25.91) |
22.14 - 29.67 |
20 (3.83) |
2.18 - 5.48 |
|||
|
Gender |
Female |
775 |
263 (33.94) |
30.60 - 37.26 |
0.0002* |
30 (3.87) |
2.51 - 5.22 |
0.32 |
|
Male |
286 |
66 (23.08) |
18.19 - 27.96 |
15 (5.24) |
2.66- 7.82 |
|||
|
Age |
< 5 months |
46 |
14 (30.43) |
17.13 - 43.73 |
0.0002* |
3 (6.52) |
0.00 - 13.65 |
0.60 |
|
[6-12 months [ |
229 |
53 (23.14) |
17.68 - 28.60 |
7 (3.06) |
0.82 - 5.28 |
|||
|
[1-3 years [ |
502 |
143 (28.49) |
24.69 - 32.62 |
24 (4.78) |
2.93 - 6.68 |
|||
|
[3-5 years] |
284 |
119 (41.90) |
36.16 - 47.64 |
11 (3.87) |
1.62 - 6.11 |
|||
|
Physiological status |
Pregnant |
291 |
111 (38.14) |
32.56 - 43.72 |
0.13 |
11 (3.78) |
1.58 - 5.97 |
0.91 |
|
Non-Pregnant |
484 |
152 (31.40) |
27.27 - 35.54 |
19 (3.93) |
2.19 - 5.65 |
|||
|
Breed |
Sahelian goat |
3 |
0 (0.00) |
- |
0.01* |
1 (33.33) |
0.00 - 86.67 |
0.0001* |
|
Djallonke goat |
409 |
103 (25.18) |
20.97 - 29.39 |
16 (3.91) |
2.03 - 5.79 |
|||
|
Djallonké Sheep |
322 |
114 (35.40) |
30.18 - 40.62 |
4 (1.24) |
0.03 - 2.45 |
|||
|
Kirdi |
104 |
32 (30.77) |
21.89 - 39.64 |
3 (2.88) |
0.00 - 6.10 |
|||
|
Fat tail sheep |
11 |
1 (9.09) |
0.00 - 26.08 |
0 (0.00) |
0.00 – 0.00 |
|||
|
Oudah |
206 |
79 (38.35) |
31.71 - 44.98 |
21 (10.19) |
6.06 - 14.32 |
|||
|
Sokoto goat |
6 |
0 (0.00) |
- |
0 (0.00) |
- |
|||
Values in a column with "*" differ significantly at P < 0.05; CI= Confidence interval,. N= total number of animals, n= number of positive animals.