Mitigating fungi-related nitrous oxide emissions by application of industrial waste in an acidic soil

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1431371/v1

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Mitigating fungi-related nitrous oxide emissions by application of industrial waste in an acidic soil

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1431371/v1

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Alkaline industrial wastes to arable soils have the potential to ameliorate soil acidification and improve crop yield. However, the impact of such amendments with N fertilizers on soil nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and the mechanisms involved remain elusive. Two incubation experiments were conducted to explore the effects of an alkaline amendment (Phosphorus tailing (PT), a waste product of phosphorus mineral flotation process) on N₂O emissions and microbial mechanisms from an acidic soil. Four treatments in the first experiment were set as: i) control (CK), ii) urea (U), iii) PT amendment (S) and iv) PT amendment plus urea (S+U). The second experiment was conducted to access the relative contributions of fungi and bacteria to N₂O emissions. Results from the first experiment showed that PT amendment significantly increased soil pH from 4.8 to above 6.0, and reduced N₂O emissions by an average of 65.7%. Higher N₂emissions and faster O₂ consumption were observed after applying the amendment than untreated soils at the end of incubation. PT amendment significantly increased extracellular enzyme activities of leucine aminopeptidase and N-Acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, while significantly decreased activities of β-1, 4-glucosidase and β-cellobiosidase. In comparison to soil with urea, urea with PT amendment raised soil bacteria-related N₂O from 9.18% to 18.8% while decreasing fungi-related N₂O from 50.5% to 43.2%. These findings suggest that the N₂O emissions from acidic soils can be considerably mitigated by application of alkaline industrial wastes. The contribution of fungi should be considered when designing and applying N₂O mitigation strategies in acidic soils.

Fungi

Nitrous oxides

Alkaline industrial waste

Acidic soil

Extracellular enzyme activity

Mitigating the effects of global climate change caused by increasing atmospheric greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has become one of society’s most important challenges (Trivedi, 2013). Nitrous oxide (N₂O) is a potent GHG greatly contributing to global climate change, with a 265-fold higher global warming potential (GWP) than carbon dioxide (CO₂) (IPCC, 2014), and is responsible for destruction of protective ozone layer (Dickinson and Cicerone, 1986; Ravishankara et al., 2009). Globally, natural and anthropogenic N₂O sources are primarily dominated by emissions from soils (Tian et al., 2020), particularly acidic soils (Liu et al., 2017). The excessive use of nitrogen (N)-based fertilizers for enhancing agricultural productivity (Erisman et al., 2018), has induced serious soil acidification recently (Guo et al., 2010; Tian and Niu, 2015). Guo et al. (2010) reported a reduced pH of 0.50 in Chinese agricultural systems from the 1980s to the 2000s. Soil acidification decreases soil pH and increases N₂O emissions (Wang et al., 2018), in turn, contributes to adverse effects on soil microorganisms, plants growth and environmental quality (Kunhikrishnan et al., 2016). Therefore, amelioration of soil acidification is critical to offset global warming by mitigating N₂O emissions.

Application of alkaline amendments to acidic soils is a common approach to ameliorate soil acidification. Phosphorus tailing (PT), an alkaline waste product of phosphorus mineral flotation process, which mainly consists of dolomite (CaMg(CO₃)₂), magnesium oxide (MgO) and silicon dioxide (SiO₂) (Zhou et al., 2020). It has the potential to increase total alkalinity and soil pH (Chadwick and Chorover, 2001; Shen et al., 2018) and is a source of base cations, such as calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) (Guo et al., 2010). However, currently only 7% of PT produced in the world is recycled (Li et al., 2019). A large amount of PT is stacked in tailings pond, which can result in severe environmental, ecological, and economic consequences (Zhou et al., 2019). Therefore, the use of alkaline waste materials for ameliorating soil acidification presents a desirable and economically attractive alternative as well as assisting in the disposal of otherwise troublesome wastes.

Soil pH-increase by applying alkaline amendments ultimately affects N₂O emissions (Shaaban et al., 2020). Recent studies suggest that N₂O emissions can be reduced by increasing soil pH (Shaaban et al., 2018; Shaaban et al., 2019). However, there are also cases where N₂O emissions were even increased in response to elevated soil pH (Baggs et al., 2010). Given the major influence of soil pH on N transformation, soil pH-increase could affect N₂O emissions by trigging virtually every N cycling process involved in N₂O formation and consumption in soils. For example, there is increasing evidence that pH-increase could enhance nitrification by increasing nitrifier population (Nicol et al., 2008), which would enhance nitrification-related N₂O emission (Hink et al., 2017). Higher soil pH also can stimulate denitrification (ŠImek and Cooper, 2002) through affecting synthesis of functional N₂O reductase (Liu et al., 2014). Robinson et al. (2014) reported that addition of lime to acidic pasture soils greatly influenced the completion of denitrification and lead to reduced N₂O emissions. Therefore, soil pH-increase effects are complex and it is necessary to improve the understanding of how alkaline amendments affect N transformation and N₂O emissions.

Traditionally, bacteria were presumed to be the exclusive contributors to soil N₂O-producing metabolic pathway (Zumft, 1997). However, recent evidence from several ecosystems suggests that both bacteria and fungi have the genetic potential to produce N₂O (Xu et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021). Fungi generally show better adaptability to acidified soil than bacteria due to the stronger cell walls and unique mycelial networks of fungi (Ma et al., 2017). Chen et al. (2015) reported that the relative contribution of fungi to N₂O production was greater than that of bacteria under acidic conditions. Little information is available concerning the differential susceptibility of bacteria and fungi to soil pH-increase. Contrasting observations have been reported for soil pH on the relative role of fungi and bacteria in N₂O production (Chen et al., 2015). Mitigating N₂O emissions by alkaline amendment addition is strongly hindered by lack of knowledge on microbial mechanisms underpinning the N₂O producing processes.

Thus, this study is aimed to explore the effect of using an alkaline industrial waste on soil pH as well as N₂O emissions. We hypothesized that i) the application of such industrial waste would effectively reduce N₂O emissions via influencing N transformation by pH-increase effect directly and indirectly; ii) the amendment decreasing N₂O emissions mainly through affecting fungal function.

2.1 Soil and alkaline mineral amendment properties

Surface soil (0–20 cm) was collected from a paddy field (27°49′53″N, 113°24′55″E) located in Zhuzhou City, Hunan province, China. The selected field is in subtropical humid monsoon climate region, with annual rainfall of 1200–1600 mm and annual average temperature of 18℃. The soil was acidic (pH 4.80) with high organic concentration (26.6 g kg^− 1). Details of selected soil properties are shown in Table S1. The sampled soil was sieved through a 2 mm mesh and air-dried for incubation experiments. All the reported measurements and calculations in this study were based on oven-dry soil mass.

The alkaline mineral amendment was collected from Kingenta Ecological Engineering Group Co., Ltd., Shandong, China, which is a mixture of PT and insoluble potassium-containing rocks. The pH of the amendment was 10.3 and the acid buffering capacity was 618 kg t^− 1. Details of selected chemical composition of the amendment are shown in Table S2.

2.2 Exp. 1: The effects of amendment on N₂O emissions

Thirty-gram of air-dried soil (oven-dry basis equivalent) was treated with i) control (CK); ii) urea at 60 mg N kg^− 1 soil (U); iii) 10 g amendment kg^− 1 soil (S); iv) 10 g amendment plus urea at 60 mg N kg^− 1 soil (S + U). Each treatment had three replicates. Urea (Guoyao, Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China) was dissolved in deionized water before use. The amendment powder was mixed evenly with soil. The treated soil was placed in 120 ml serum flasks and incubated with 70% water holding capacity (WHC) at 20 ± 0.5℃ for 184 h. All flasks were immediately sealed with air-tight bromobutyl rubber septa and aluminum caps (Macherey-Nagel, Germany), washed with an oxygen-helium gas mixture (21% O₂, v/v) by repeated evacuation for 5 cycles of vacuuming-replenishing to remove gases in the flasks. A syringe filled with distilled water was then inserted to balance the gas pressure to 1 atm (Wu et al., 2013). The headspace gas was automatically sampled per 8 h through the butyl-rubber septa of the incubated flasks by a Robotized incubation system (Yin et al., 2021). To maintain constant gas pressure inside, an equal volume of ultrapure helium (He, 99.999%) was automatically returned to the flasks after each sampling. Sampled gas was transported by a peristaltic pump (Gilson Model 222, Gilson, France) connected to an Agilent 7890A GC equipped with an electron capture detector and a thermal conductivity detector. The gas sampling and analysis were carried out with a custom-made Python computer program. The gas emission was computed using the method developed by the NMBU team at the Norwegian university of life sciences (https://www.nmbu.no/en/research/groups/nitrogen/approaches-and-infrastructure). The global warming potential (GWP) was calculated as the sum of cumulative CO₂ and N₂O emissions multiplied by the radiative forcing factor of each gas (1 and 265, respectively), over a 100-year time horizon (IPCC, 2014).

In a parallel experiment, soil samples were destructively collected at 24, 48, 96, 120 and 184 h, for analyses of soil pH, mineral N, and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). Soil extracellular enzyme activities of N-Acetyl-β-glucosaminidase (NAG), leucine aminopeptidase (LAP), β-1, 4-glucosidase, and β-cellobiosidase were measured at 48 h with fluorogenically labeled artificial substrates according to Turner (2010) with a multimode reader (Varioskan flash, Thermo Scientific, USA). The details of determination methods are described in Supplementary information.

2.3 Exp. 2: Bacterial and fungal contributions to N₂O emissions

Thirty-gram of air-dried soil was pre-incubated in 120 ml serum flasks under 25°C and 40% WHC for 7 d, followed by factorial combination of 2 amendments (urea at 60 mg N kg^− 1 soil (U); or 10 g PT amendment plus urea at 60 mg N kg^− 1 soil (S + U)) and 3 biological inhibitors (no antibiotics, streptomycin (bactericide), and cycloheximide (fungicide)). Inhibitors mixed with talc powder (24 mg g^− 1) were added to the soil, and soil water content was maintained at 70% WHC with glucose solution (6 mg glucose-C g^− 1 soil), which could supply plenty C for microorganisms metabolism (Lin and Brookes, 1999). The gas sampling was conducted by the Robotized incubation system as described in Exp.1. The optimum concentrations for both cycloheximide and streptomycin were 6 mg g^− 1 soil with corresponding IAR value of 1.03. Fungal or bacterial contribution to soil N₂O emissions after 10 h incubation was calculated using the equation: 100*(A − B)/A, where A and B represent N₂O emissions in the control and cycloheximide or streptomycin, respectively (Chen et al., 2015). The method of selecting the optimum inhibitor concentrations was described in Supplementary information.

2.4 Statistical analysis

Differences between treatment means were evaluated using One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) by SPSS 20.0 (IBM, USA). Differences at P < 0.05 were statistically significant followed by the LSD test. All the figures were made by SigmaPlot 12.5. The Lavaan R package was used for structural equation modelling (SEM). The modification index (mi) was used to investigate whether omitted pathways could improve the initial conceptual model (Rosseel, 2012).

3.1 Soil pH

After 24 h incubation, soil pH increased by 1.27 and 1.35 in S and S + U treatments, respectively, and maintained > 6.0 throughout the incubation period (Fig. 1). An increase of soil pH was observed in CK and U treatments from 96 h to 120 h, and then stabilized for the rest of the incubation period.

3.2 Soil mineral nitrogen and dissolved organic nitrogen

Soil NH₄⁺-N concentrations were dramatically increased during the incubation (Fig. 2A). The concentrations of NH₄⁺-N were increased following urea addition (45.4–115 mg kg^− 1 in U, 64.0-119.31 mg kg^− 1 in S + U) as compared to that in CK (14.7–69.5 mg kg^− 1) and S (16.9–115 mg kg^− 1), respectively. PT amendment (S, S + U) resulted in a faster increase in NH₄⁺-N concentrations as compared to that in untreated soil (CK, U) especially in the first 96 h.

Soil NO₃⁻-N concentrations increased during incubation till 120 h, and then decreased sharply to a low level (near nil) at 184 h (Fig. 2B). PT amendment (S, S + U) led to significantly higher (P < 0.05) concentrations of soil NO₃⁻-N than unamended (CK, U) soil during 24 to120 h.

Soil NO₂⁻-N concentrations in all treatments were < 2 mg N kg^− 1 throughout the incubation and showed a tendency to decrease with time (Fig. 2C). The NO₂⁻-N concentrations in S and S + U treatments were significantly greater than that in CK and U treatments in the first 96 h (P < 0.05).

PT amendment (S and S + U) significantly increased the DON concentrations compared to unamended soil (CK and U). The highest DON concentration was observed in S + U treatment at 96 h of the incubation.

3.3 Gases emissions

All flasks were sealed during the incubation, the O₂ concentrations kept dropping until 0% (Fig. 3A). PT amendment enhanced O₂ consumption, and gave O₂ concentration to 0% in the 96 h that appeared earlier than those without the amendment addition. The incubation was divided into two stages of aerobic and anaerobic based on O₂ concentration.

Within the first 96 h of incubation, i.e., aerobic phase, PT amendment (S and U + S) reduced N₂O emission by an average of 65.7% as compared to that in unamended soil (CK and U). N₂O rapidly rose to the peak during the transition to anaerobic phase, and then decreased sharply to less than the analytical limit of detection within 8–16 hours after reaching the peak. Peak N₂O concentrations were observed at 96 h (S + U), 104 h (S), 152 h (U) and 160 h (CK) up to 92.8, 121, 81.9, and 79.4 nmol g^− 1, respectively.

The cumulative N₂ emission maintained stable within aerobic phase (Fig. 3B). It increased rapidly and reached a comparatively high level during the transition to anaerobic phase, which was combined with corresponding N₂O decrease. After 184 h incubation, N₂ emissions were greater in PT amended soil (S and S + U) in comparison to that from unamended soil (CK and U) (P < 0.05).

PT amendment had a significant impact on the relative contributions of bacteria and fungi to N₂O emissions (Table 1). When cycloheximide was added in the U and S + U treatments, N₂O emissions were significantly reduced compared to those without cycloheximide (P < 0.05). In U treatment, the N₂O emission was reduced by 9.12% and 50.8% with streptomycin and cycloheximide, respectively. In the S + U treatment, bacteria and fungi contributed 18.8% and 43.2% to soil N₂O emissions, respectively. PT amendment with urea increased the contribution of bacteria to N₂O emissions but decreased fungi-related N₂O concerning urea application alone.

Table 1

Effects of streptomycin and cycloheximide on soil cumulative N₂O emissions after soil amendments addition. Lowercase letters indicate significant differences (P < 0.05) among different antibiotics treatments.
Treatments	cumulative N₂O emissions (nmol g^− 1)			Contributions to N₂O (%)
	No antibiotics	Streptomycin	Cycloheximide	Bacteria	Fungi
U	0.49 a	0.45 b	0.24 c	9.12	50.8
S + U	0.32 a	0.26 a	0.18 b	18.8	43.2

3.4 Soil extracellular enzyme activity

PT amendment (S and S + U) significantly increased the activities of NAG and LAP as compared to unamended soil (CK and U) (P < 0.05), and the mean values of increase were 33.2 and 45.9 nmol h^− 1 g^− 1, respectively. Contrary to the activities of NAG and LAP, the activities of β-1, 4-glucosidase and β-cellobiosidase decreased 70.0% and 87.5% with PT amendment, respectively.

3.5 Structural equation modeling

Parameters in the SEM models included the pH, concentrations of NH₄⁺-N, NO₃⁻-N and DON, and N₂O emissions. Fitting the results by SEM yielded the following parameters: Chi-square = 1.272, P = 0.938, df = 5, GFI (Goodness Fit Index) = 1.000, CFI (Comparative Fit Index) = 1.000, RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) = 0.000 (Fig. 5A). The soil N₂O emission was positively affected by DON (0.37) and NO₃⁻-N (0.33) concentrations and negatively affected by pH (-0.46) (Fig. 5A). Soil pH had indirect negative effects on N₂O emissions through increasing NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N concentrations and decreasing DON concentration (Fig. 5A). The standardized effects from SEM showed that soil pH (total effect=-0.82) primarily affected soil N₂O emission comparison with other factors (Fig. 5B).

4.1 N transformation involved in N₂O production/consumption regulated by PT amendment

The amendment in this study would be a good liming material to increase acidic soil pH (Fig. 1). Consequently, N₂O emissions were effectively decreased due to soil pH-increase, especially in the aerobic phase of Exp.1 (Fig. 3). As the SEM result showed, PT amendment had positive effect on pH, and soil pH had indirect effects on N₂O emissions through increasing NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N concentrations, but decreasing DON concentration (Fig. 5), indicating the impacts caused by PT amendment on N transformation.

It is well established that soil pH is a main controlling factor for N₂O emission/reduction through regulating nitrification and denitrification (Baggs et al., 2010). Several field and microcosm studies have demonstrated that increasing soil pH by lime, biochar, or other alkaline amendments could stimulate potential nitrification rates (Teutscherova et al., 2017; Hink et al., 2018). Similar results were observed in the current study, where both mineralization and nitrification were increased with the cumulative NH₄⁺-N and NO₃⁻-N concentrations due to PT amendment. It is possibly because soil pH is considered highly and inversely related to heterotrophic nitrification rate, while positively related to autotrophic nitrification (Huygens et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2015). Autotrophic nitrification could be generally impeded at low pH condition (Zhang et al., 2011), because the availability of autotrophic nitrification substrate (NH₃) and the activity of autotrophs are limited. Low soil pH (4.80) is a favorable condition for heterotrophic nitrification (Zhang et al., 2020). In acidic soils, it is generally believed that heterotrophic nitrification occurs extensively and plays an important role in NO₃⁻ production. The high proportion of heterotrophic nitrification, on the other hand, might be due to their poor autotrophic nitrification rates in acidic conditions, rather than indicating high heterotrophic nitrification rates (Demey et al., 2014). Therefore, increasing autotrophic nitrification rates with pH increment, even while the heterotrophic nitrification rate may decrease, the amendment addition resulting a higher NO₃⁻ concentration due to higher total nitrification rates.

The other fundamental reason for stimulating nitrification with PT amendment in this study maybe due to increased DON concentration with increasing mineralization which attributed to higher NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻ concentrations (DeForest and Otuya, 2020). In acidic soils, N mineralization can supply substrates for autotrophic ammonia oxidizers and has been acknowledged as a helpful indication for evaluating nitrification potential (He et al., 2012). Nitrification rates based on mineralized organic N can be equal or even greater than those reported in neutral pH soils (Booth et al., 2005). Heterotrophic nitrification is regarded to play an important role in soil N cycling, because it provides, next to mineralization, another direct way for producing mineral N from organic N (Müller et al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2014). Increased soil pH affected extracellular enzyme activity (Fig. 4), which was recognized as the microbial indicator for N mineralization (Zhang et al., 2018). Gavrichkova et al. (2010) found a positive relationship between LAP activity and N mineralization. Increasing the activities of LAP and NAG resulted in a stepwise decomposition of soil organic nitrogen with the PT amendment. Soil enzyme activities were strongly affected by pH (Ai et al., 2015; Puissant et al., 2019).

In the anaerobic phase of Exp.1, PT amendment increased the peak of N₂O emissions and hence increased N₂ emissions (Fig. 3). Most previous studies attributed the lower N₂O emissions with pH increase to the enhanced N₂O-reductase enzyme encoded by bacterial nosZ gene which promote N₂O reduction to N₂ (Liu et al., 2014; Shaaban et al., 2018; Aamer et al., 2020). An incubation experiment conducted by Aamer et al. (2020) also indicated that the application of biochar effectively reduced N₂O emission and increased the abundance of functional N₂O reductase (nosZ genes) by increasing soil pH. Therefore, PT amendment could promote the N₂O reduction to N₂ through enhancing complete denitrification under anaerobic condition.

4.2 Microbial mechanisms involved in mitigating N₂O emissions from acidic soils with soil pH-increase

For over a century, the production of N₂O was attributed to bacteria, but the role of fungi in this process is now widely accepted (Castellano-Hinojosa et al., 2021). Previous investigations showed dominant role of soil fungi rather than bacteria for N₂O production in acidic soils (Chen et al., 2013; Wei et al., 2014). Our second hypothesis was that fungi play a leading role in N₂O emissions with pH increase of an acidic soil. Our results confirmed greater role of fungi on N₂O production as compared to that of bacteria. Furthermore, contribution of bacteria for N₂O production was greater while that of fungi was lower in PT amended as compared to that in unamended soil (Table 1). In acidic soil, fungi have been reported to be the dominant N₂O contributor via fungal denitrification and/or heterotrophic nitrification (Chen et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2019). Huang et al. (2017) found that 70% of N₂O production was from fungal denitrification in a tea plantation with pH 3.8. The end product of fungal denitrification is N₂O as there was no evidence synthesis of N₂O reductase by fungi (Yamamoto et al., 2017), which was inconsistent with bacterial denitrification. Unlike denitrifying bacteria that require strict anaerobic conditions for NO₃⁻ or NO₂⁻ reduction, fungi are effective in denitrification even in the presence of small amounts of O₂ (Zumft, 1997; Zhou et al., 2001). This may explain why we observed a decrease in N₂O emission under aerobic conditions.

In comparison to autotrophic organisms, the study of heterotrophic organisms capable of nitrification has received much less attention. It is generally believed that fungi are more efficient in performing heterotrophic nitrification compared to their bacterial counterparts under low pH conditions, as they are more acid-tolerant (Pedersen et al., 1999; Zhu et al., 2015). A 30 days incubation experiment by Zhang et al. (2020) showed that the gross heterotrophic nitrification rate in cropland soil decreased significantly (P < 0.01) with increase in pH and suggested that fungi were the dominant heterotrophic nitrifiers in acidic soils. Therefore, liming may reduce N₂O emissions through decreasing heterotrophic nitrification which was mainly performed by fungi in acidic soil. While the lack of suitable marker genes has resulted in relatively little research into the contribution of heterotrophic organisms in natural systems in comparison to autotrophic nitrifiers.

The change of pH influenced enzymes activities which were related to fungal activity (Kielak et al., 2013). Changes in NAG activity is a good indicator of fungal activity (Aamer et al., 2020). Corrales et al. (2017) reported that the reduction in fungal population could decrease NAG activity. In addition, active fungi are key producers of soil cellulase (Shi et al., 2006). The present study showed that the activities of the β-glucosidase and β-cellobiosidase which are related to the decomposition of cellulose were inhibited with PT amendment (Fig. 4). Puissant et al. (2019) found that acidic pH with an average of pH 4.3 favors β-glucosidase enzyme. Therefore, the effects of PT amendment on the enzyme activities may reduce fungal function, which in turn decrease the contribution of fungi to N₂O emissions.

Although N₂O emission was reduced by PT amendment, the CO₂ emission was stimulated with an increase in pH (Fig. S1). Recent studies have shown the trade-off between the contrasting effects of soil amendment on N₂O and CO₂ emissions (Liu et al., 2020; Tarin et al., 2020). According to Grover et al. (2017), the increase in soil pH caused by liming can affect the mineralization of native SOC, contributing to increased CO₂ emissions. This may be caused by enhanced microbial activity due to increase in soil pH (Aye et al., 2016). To assess the combined effects of amendment addition on N₂O and CO₂, the GWP were calculated in this study (Fig. S1). Although the CO₂ emissions were increased with PT amendment, the GWP were significantly reduced due to the effective abatement of N₂O emission. Therefore, the amelioration of acidic soil with the amendment of alkaline industrial waste can considerably mitigate soil GHG emissions by elevating soil pH.

This study showed that application of alkaline amendment decreased N₂O emissions from an acidic soil by increasing soil pH. Fungi contributed far more to N₂O production than bacteria under acidic condition, and the contributions of bacteria and fungi to N₂O production were boosted and lowered, respectively, by PT amendment. The extracellular enzyme activities are good indicator of fungal function. The application of alkaline industrial waste is a viable option to control the GHG emissions. Further studies are suggested to identify N₂O emitted pathways in acidic soils during soil liming.

Acknowledgments

This research was sponsored by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42007031). We appreciate Professor A. K. Alva, Former Research Leader and Location Coordinator, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) for technical and language editing of this manuscript.

Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Data Availability

All codes and data used in this study are freely available from the corresponding author upon request.

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Mitigating fungi-related nitrous oxide emissions by application of industrial waste in an acidic soil

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2 Materials And Methods

2.1 Soil and alkaline mineral amendment properties

2.2 Exp. 1: The effects of amendment on N₂O emissions

2.3 Exp. 2: Bacterial and fungal contributions to N₂O emissions

2.4 Statistical analysis

3 Results

3.1 Soil pH

3.2 Soil mineral nitrogen and dissolved organic nitrogen

3.3 Gases emissions

3.4 Soil extracellular enzyme activity

3.5 Structural equation modeling

4 Discussions

4.1 N transformation involved in N₂O production/consumption regulated by PT amendment

4.2 Microbial mechanisms involved in mitigating N₂O emissions from acidic soils with soil pH-increase

5. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1

Mitigating fungi-related nitrous oxide emissions by application of industrial waste in an acidic soil

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2 Materials And Methods

2.1 Soil and alkaline mineral amendment properties

2.2 Exp. 1: The effects of amendment on N2O emissions

2.3 Exp. 2: Bacterial and fungal contributions to N2O emissions

2.4 Statistical analysis

3 Results

3.1 Soil pH

3.2 Soil mineral nitrogen and dissolved organic nitrogen

3.3 Gases emissions

3.4 Soil extracellular enzyme activity

3.5 Structural equation modeling

4 Discussions

4.1 N transformation involved in N2O production/consumption regulated by PT amendment

4.2 Microbial mechanisms involved in mitigating N2O emissions from acidic soils with soil pH-increase

5. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1

2.2 Exp. 1: The effects of amendment on N₂O emissions

2.3 Exp. 2: Bacterial and fungal contributions to N₂O emissions

4.1 N transformation involved in N₂O production/consumption regulated by PT amendment

4.2 Microbial mechanisms involved in mitigating N₂O emissions from acidic soils with soil pH-increase