In total, 7,907 men and 10,063 women were included in this study. Table 1 lists the demographic characteristics of the study participants as classified by their BF obesity status. A total of 3,389 men and 5,136 women had BF obesity, whereas 4,518 men and 4,927 women had non-BF obesity. Both sexes in the BF obesity group were older and had higher BMI, WC, HC, and WHR values. Significant differences were found in education, currently employed status, income level status, marital status, and relationship status among both the men and women.
Table 1
Demographic characteristics of the study participants with or without body fat obesity in Taiwanese adultsa.
Variables
|
Men (N = 7,907)
|
Women (N = 10,063)
|
BF Obesity
(n = 3,389)
|
Non-BF obesity
(n = 4,518)
|
p value
|
BF Obesity
(n = 5,136)
|
Non-BF obesity
(n = 4,927)
|
p value
|
Age (years)
|
38.45 ± 11.32
|
36.59 ± 10.87
|
< 0.0001*
|
37.87 ± 11.81
|
37.09 ± 10.34
|
< 0.0001*
|
Height (cm)
|
170.24 ± 6.64
|
172.70 ± 6.03
|
< 0.0001*
|
158.99 ± 5.78
|
160.62 ± 5.73
|
< 0.0001*
|
Body weight (kg)
|
75.42 ± 12.41
|
69.89 ± 9.25
|
< 0.0001*
|
59.42 ± 9.20
|
54/17 ± 7.90
|
< 0.0001*
|
BMI (kg/m2)
|
25.95 ± 3.53
|
23.41 ± 2.61
|
< 0.0001*
|
23.49 ± 3.28
|
20.96 ± 2.53
|
< 0.0001*
|
WC (cm)
|
84.00 ± 9.27
|
80.62 ± 7.95
|
< 0.0001*
|
77.28 ± 8.81
|
72.67 ± 7.61
|
< 0.0001*
|
HC (cm)
|
98.30 ± 7.20
|
96.33 ± 8.08
|
< 0.0001*
|
95.10 ± 8.08
|
90.97 ± 7.73
|
< 0.0001*
|
WHR
|
0.85 ± 0.06
|
0.84 ± 0.04
|
< 0.0001*
|
0.81 ± 0.06
|
0.80 ± 0.05
|
< 0.0001*
|
FM (kg)
|
24.06 ± 4.07
|
13.35 ± 3.90
|
< 0.0001*
|
22.28 ± 4.20
|
13.35 ± 3.13
|
< 0.0001*
|
FFM (kg)
|
51.35 ± 10.92
|
56.54 ± 6.90
|
< 0.0001*
|
37.14 ± 7.71
|
40.81 ± 6.00
|
< 0.0001*
|
%BF
|
32.41 ± 6.02
|
18.89 ± 4.16
|
< 0.0001*
|
37.85 ± 6.96
|
24.55 ± 3.97
|
< 0.0001*
|
Education (%)
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
Elementary school or lower
|
1.1
|
0.1
|
|
2.1
|
0.7
|
|
Junior or senior high school
|
14.9
|
4.8
|
|
16.2
|
7.6
|
|
College or higher
|
84.0
|
95.0
|
|
81.6
|
91.7
|
|
Currently employed (%)
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
Yes
|
87.2
|
91.7
|
|
81.8
|
88.7
|
|
No
|
10.8
|
4.4
|
|
16.3
|
7.9
|
|
Other
|
2.0
|
3.9
|
|
1.8
|
3.5
|
|
Income level (%)
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
≦ 20,000 NTD
|
11.1
|
6.1
|
|
15.5
|
8.7
|
|
20,001–40,000 NTD
|
29.0
|
21.5
|
|
37.1
|
36.2
|
|
≧ 40,001 NTD
|
59.9
|
72.4
|
|
47.4
|
55.1
|
|
Marital status (%)
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
Never married
|
34.6
|
47.8
|
|
34.8
|
46.4
|
|
Married
|
59.1
|
46.9
|
|
59.4
|
47.0
|
|
Divorced/separation/widowed
|
6.3
|
5.3
|
|
5.8
|
6.5
|
|
Relationship status (%)
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
|
|
< 0.0001*
|
Living with someone
|
84.0
|
78.2
|
|
87.8
|
83.5
|
|
Not living with someone
|
16.0
|
21.8
|
|
12.2
|
16.5
|
|
BF body fat, BMI body mass index, HC hip circumference, FFM free fat mass, FM fat mass, NTD New Taiwan Dolloar, SD standard deviation, WC waist circumference, WHR waist-to-hip ratio. |
BF Obesity, %BF ≥ 25% in men and ≥ 30% in women; Non-BF Obesity, %BF < 25% in men and %BF < 30% in women. |
aValues expressed as the means ± SD or percentage (%). |
*p < 0.05. |
Table 2 presents the comparison of BF obesity status differences by various health-related physical fitness measurements among adults in Taiwan. The results indicated that the non-BF obesity group had significantly higher results for all of the physical fitness tests among both men and women.
Table 2
Scientific physical fitness measurements with or without body fat obesity in Taiwanese adultsa.
Variables
|
Men (N = 7,907)
|
Women (N = 10,063)
|
BF Obesity
(n = 3,389)
|
Non-BF obesity
(n = 4,518)
|
p value
|
BF Obesity
(n = 5,136)
|
Non-BF obesity
(n = 4,927)
|
p value
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
38.33 ± 3.85
|
44.56 ± 4.39
|
< 0.0001*
|
31.83 ± 4.11
|
37.66 ± 4.39
|
< 0.0001*
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
38.70 ± 9.50
|
43.60 ± 7.86
|
< 0.0001*
|
25.01 ± 5.88
|
26.05 ± 5.78
|
< 0.0001*
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
21.73 ± 10.00
|
21.28 ± 9.54
|
0.041*
|
26.84 ± 9.97
|
27.76 ± 10.86
|
< 0.0001*
|
3MPKS 3-min progressive knee-up and step, BF body fat, SD standard deviation. |
BF Obesity, %BF ≥ 25% in men and ≥ 30% in women; Non-BF Obesity, %BF < 25% in men and %BF < 30% in women. |
aValues are expressed as the means ± SD. |
*p < 0.05. |
Table 3 presents the results of the regression coefficients for predicting BF% by using different health-related physical fitness measurements. The results indicated that there was a negative relationship between BF% and health-related physical fitness measurements (p < 0.05) without the sit-and-reach test in women. In men, adjusted for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, and other physical fitness measurements, the power was decreased in the 3MPKS (β = -1.565) and sit-and-reach tests (β = 0.027) and increased in the grip strength test (β = -0.104). However, in women, after adjusting for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, and other physical fitness measurements, the power was decreased in 3MPKS (β = -1.538) and grip strength (β = -0.066) tests.
Table 3
Regression coefficients for predicting body fat percentage using different physical fitness measurements.
Variables
|
Model 1 (unadjusted)
|
Model 2 (adjusteda)
|
β
|
SE
|
p
|
β
|
SE
|
p
|
Men
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
-1.085
|
0.013
|
< 0.0001*
|
-1.565
|
0.012
|
< 0.0001*
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
-0.187
|
0.007
|
< 0.0001*
|
-0.104
|
0.006
|
< 0.0001*
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
0.059
|
0.006
|
< 0.0001*
|
0.027
|
0.005
|
< 0.0001*
|
Women
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
-1.116
|
0.013
|
< 0.0001*
|
-1.538
|
0.012
|
< 0.0001*
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
-0.026
|
0.011
|
0.022*
|
-0.066
|
0.009
|
< 0.0001*
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
-0.015
|
0.006
|
0.016*
|
-0.007
|
0.005
|
0.166
|
3MPKS 3-min progressive knee-up and step, SE standard error, β regression coefficient. |
aAdjusted for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, relationship status, and other physical fitness measurements. |
*p < 0.05. |
Table 4 presents the results of the regression coefficients for predicting the BF% of health-related physical fitness measurements. The results indicated that there was a significant relationship between BF% and health-related physical fitness measurements (p < 0.05). In men, after adjusting for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, and other physical fitness measurements, the power significantly increased with the 3MPKS (β = 11.314) and sit-and-reach tests (β = -0.394) and decreased with the grip strength test (β = 2.071). However, in women, after adjusting for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, and other health-related physical fitness measurements, the power significantly increased with 3MPKS (β = 12.038) and grip strength tests (β = 0.859) and decreased in the sit-and-reach test (β = 0.337).
Table 4
Regression coefficients for predicting body fat percentage using 50th percentiles of physical fitness measurements.
Variables
|
Model 1 (unadjusted)
|
Model 2 (adjusteda)
|
β
|
SE
|
p
|
β
|
SE
|
p
|
Men
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 41.65
|
9.443
|
0.152
|
< 0.0001*
|
11.314
|
0.161
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 41.65
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 42.00
|
2.545
|
0.152
|
< 0.0001*
|
2.071
|
0.140
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 42.00
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 21.00
|
-0.773
|
0.150
|
< 0.0001*
|
-0.394
|
0.137
|
0.004*
|
≧ 21.00
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Women
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 34.42
|
9.823
|
0.145
|
< 0.0001*
|
12.038
|
0.142
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 34.42
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 25.40
|
0.562
|
0.145
|
< 0.0001*
|
0.859
|
0.128
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 25.40
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 27.00
|
0.422
|
0.144
|
0.003*
|
0.337
|
0.127
|
0.008*
|
≧ 27.00
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
3MPKS 3-min progressive knee-up and step, SE standard error, β regression coefficient. |
aAdjusted for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, relationship status, and other physical fitness measurements. |
*p < 0.05. |
Table 5 presents the multivariate-adjusted ORs for BF obesity in relation to the 50th percentiles of health-related physical fitness measurements after adjustments for potential confounders. Via a 3MPKS test result of > 41.65 as the baseline, participants with 3-min step test results < 41.65 exhibited the highest risk of BF obesity (OR = 26.554; 95% CI: 22.718–31.038) among men. However, there was a significant relationship between the 3MPKS test results and BF obesity in women when using > 34.42 as the baseline in Model 2. When a grip strength test score of > 42.00 was set as the baseline, male participants with grip strength test scores of < 42.00 had the highest risk of BF obesity (OR = 1.682; 95% CI: 1.503–1.883) after adjustments. However, for women, scores of < 25.40 demonstrated a significant relationship between the grip strength test results and a risk of BF obesity (OR = 1.234; 95% CI: 1.119–1.360) when a grip strength test score of > 25.40 was used as the baseline. By using a sit-and-reach test score of > 29.00 as the baseline, male participants with scores of < 21.00 had no significant relationship with BF obesity (OR = 0.911; 95% CI: 0.815–1.019) after adjustments. For women, when a sit-and-reach test score of > 27.00 was set as the baseline, participants with scores of < 27.00 had the highest risk of BF obesity (OR = 1.142; 95% CI: 1.037–1.258) after adjustments.
Table 5
Multivariate adjusted ORs for BF obesity in relation to 50th percentiles of physical fitness measurements after adjustment for potential confounders.
Variables
|
Model 1 (unadjusted)
|
Model 2 (adjusteda)
|
OR
|
95% CI
|
p
|
OR
|
95% CI
|
p
|
Men
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 41.65
|
10.511
|
9.435–11.711
|
< 0.0001*
|
26.554
|
22.718–31.038
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 41.65
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 42.00
|
1.743
|
1.568–1.937
|
< 0.0001*
|
1.682
|
1.503–1.883
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 42.00
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 21.00
|
0.845
|
0.760–0.939
|
0.0002*
|
0.911
|
0.815–1.019
|
0.104
|
≧ 21.00
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Women
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3MPKS (ml/kg/min)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 34.42
|
10.316
|
9.406–11.315
|
< 0.0001*
|
25.808
|
22.544–29.545
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 34.42
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Grip strength (kg)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 25.40
|
1.124
|
1.024–1.232
|
0.014*
|
1.234
|
1.119–1.360
|
< 0.0001*
|
≧ 25.40
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Sit-and-reach test (cm)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
< 27.00
|
1.148
|
1.047–1.259
|
0.003*
|
1.142
|
1.037–1.258
|
0.007*
|
≧ 27.00
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
Ref.
|
—
|
—
|
3MPKS 3-min progressive knee-up and step, CI confidence interval, OR odds ratio. |
BF Obesity, %BF ≥ 25% in men and ≥ 30% in women; Non-BF Obesity, %BF < 25% in men and %BF < 30% in women. |
aAdjusted for age, education, occupation, monthly income, marital status, relationship status, and other physical fitness measurements. |
*p < 0.05. |