This section discusses the profile of the respondents. It also contains discussions on the level of importance and satisfaction with physical, environmental and economic attributes, dimension of urban deprivation and factors influencing urban deprivation in the study area.
3.1 Socioeconomic attributes of residents
The study examined socioeconomic characteristics of residents in order to contribute to understanding the degree, intensity and distribution of urban deprivation (Baum, 2004; Julio, 2011). These characteristics, according to Conway and Konvitz (2000) and Jaiyeoba (2018), have important policy outcomes to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of local areas in order to improve targeting of local social and economic development programmes. Variables considered are gender, age, income, education status, length of stay in their area, household size, number of households in the house and house ownership, among others.
Presented in Table 1 are findings on the gender of respondents in the study area. Findings revealed that 52.7% of the respondents in the areas in Lagos State were males while 47.3% were females. In Ogun State areas, 52.0% of the respondents were males while 48.0% were females. In general, 52.3% of the respondents sampled were males while 47.7% were female. The age of respondents is another basic characteristic that contributes significantly to identifying and understanding the views of individuals based on the issues of urban deprivation in their locality. For ease of presentation continuous raw data collected on age of the residents were categorized into four to aid better presentation. These are: teenagers (those less than 20 years); young adults (20 to 39 years); elderly adults (40 to 59 years) and old people (above 60). Findings from the Lagos areas revealed that 9.3% of the respondents were teenagers, 73.3% younger adults, 14.7% were elderly adults while 2.7% of the respondents were old people. Investigation from the areas in Ogun State revealed that respondents within the age groups of teenagers, young adults, elderly adults and old people constituted 13.7%, 65.1%, 19.8% and 1.7% respectively. Generally, findings revealed that majority (68.9%) of the residents fell within the young adult age group. This indicates that the majority of the respondents are in their prime age when they should be desirous of good quality of life for themselves rather than urban deprivation.
Studies such as (Jaiyeoba, 2018; Oluwadare, 2015; Mislu, 2000) have identified education status of respondents as a strong determinant of their knowledge of urban deprivation. Findings into the educational attainment of respondents across the study area revealed that 9.2% had primary education, 41.8% had secondary education while 55.4% had tertiary education. The findings revealed a relatively high level of education among the respondents that can make them understand the level of deprivation in their locality.
According to Julio (2011), having a good and permanent income helps an individual to meet his/her basic needs and afford essential amenities. Based on the prevailing Civil Service Salary Scale in Lagos and Ogun States, the income classification was carried out. The minimum wage at the federal level in Nigeria is ₦30,000 and has been adopted by both states. Hence, incomes below ₦50,000 were categorized as low income because most of them belong to the lower cadre of the civil service. The medium monthly incomes were categorized as from ₦51,000 to ₦100,000 while residents earning above ₦100,000 were categorized as high-income earners. In Lagos areas, 28.7% of the respondents were low-income earners, 58.0% were middle income earners while 13.3% were high income earners. Findings from the Ogun areas revealed that the proportion of respondents that comprised low-, middle- and high-income earners were 29.7%, 54.6% and 15.1% respectively. The average income of N55,498.67 and N56,537.14 in Lagos and Ogun States respectively. The overall mean income of the respondents in the study area is N92,035.81
The household size of the respondents was assessed. This is premised on the assumption that population will rely upon the existing available facilities in the settlements. Overpopulation in an area invariably place existing infrastructural facilities under pressure. Household sizes with one to five members were categorised as small, those with six to ten members as large. In the areas in Lagos State, respondents with small and large household sizes constituted 87.3% and 12.7% respectively while respondents with low and high household sizes accounted for 88.0% and 12.0% respectively in the areas of Ogun State. In summary, majority (87.7%) of the respondents across the areas of the two states have a small household size. Assessment was also made on the number of households in sampled buildings in the study area. Findings revealed that across both states, 38.2% of the buildings sampled had less than five households occupying it, 43.7% of the buildings were occupied 5 to 10 households while 18.2% of the buildings accommodated more than 10 households.
The length of stay of residents within the boarder settlements were categorised into three (≤ 10 years; 11–20 years; > 20 years). Findings revealed that respondents that have spent less than 10 years, between 11 to 20 years and above 20 years residence in the areas of Lagos State constituted 71.3%, 26.7% and 2.0% respectively. On the other hand, the proportion of respondents that have spent less than 10 years, 11 to 20 years and above 20 years residence in the areas of Ogun State accounted for 68.6%, 27.4% and 4.0% respectively. Investigation was also made into the type of house ownership in the study area in order to determine if the house were owner-occupier or rented. The essence of this variable is that the ownership or otherwise of the house occupied by a resident influences their level of assessment of urban deprivation. In the areas in Lagos State, 43.3% of the residents sampled were house owners while 60.0% rented their houses. In Ogun State, 29.7% of the sampled residents house owners while the remaining (70.3%) live in rented apartments.
Table 1
Socioeconomic Characteristics of Respondents
Attribute
|
Lagos
|
Ogun
|
Total
|
|
Frequency (%)
|
Frequency (%)
|
Frequency (%)
|
Gender
|
|
Male
|
79 (52.7)
|
91 (52.0)
|
170 (52.3)
|
Female
|
71 (47.3)
|
84 (48.0)
|
155 (47.7)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
Age
|
|
< 20
|
14 (9.3)
|
24 (13.7)
|
38 (11.7)
|
20–39
|
110 (73.3)
|
114 (65.1)
|
224 (68.9)
|
41–60
|
22 (14.7)
|
34 (19.8)
|
56 (17.2)
|
≥ 60
|
4 (2.7)
|
3 (1.7)
|
7 (2.2)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
Educational Status
|
|
Primary
|
4 (2.7)
|
5 (2.9)
|
9 (2.8)
|
Secondary
|
66 (44.0)
|
70 (40.0)
|
136 (41.8)
|
Tertiary
|
80 (53.3)
|
100 (57.1)
|
180 (55.4)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
Income Status
|
|
≤₦50,000
|
43 (28.7)
|
52 (29.7)
|
95 (29.2)
|
₦51,000- ₦100,000
|
87 (58.0)
|
96 (54.6)
|
183 (56.4)
|
≥₦101,000
|
20 (13.3)
|
17 (15.1)
|
47 (14.4)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
Household Size
|
|
≤ 5
|
131 (87.3)
|
154 (88.0)
|
285 (87.7)
|
6–10
|
19 (12.7)
|
21 (12.0)
|
40 (12.3)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
Number of Households in the Sampled Buildings
|
|
≤ 5
|
57 (17.5)
|
67 (20.6)
|
124 (38.2)
|
6–10
|
67 (20.6)
|
75 (23.1)
|
142 (43.7)
|
> 10
|
26 (8.0)
|
33 (10.2)
|
59 (18.2)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
Length of Respondents’ Stay
|
≤ 10years
|
107 (71.3)
|
120 (68.6)
|
227 (69.8)
|
11–20years
|
40 (26.7)
|
48 (27.4)
|
88 (27.1)
|
≥ 21 years
|
3 (2.0)
|
7 (4.0)
|
10 (3.1)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
House Tenure
|
Owner occupied
|
51 (34.0)
|
52 (29.7)
|
103 (31.7)
|
Rented
|
99 (60.0)
|
123 (70.3)
|
222 (68.3)
|
Total
|
150 (100.0)
|
175(100.0)
|
325 (100.0)
|
3.2 Residents’ Level of Importance and Satisfaction Derived from Physical, Social and Environmental Attributes of Border Settlements
Sequel to the discussion of socio-economic characteristics of the respondents across the border settlements, the level of importance that the residents attached to and the level of satisfaction they derived from physical social and economic attributes of the settlement are presented in this section. The importance residents attached to these attributes were computed using Residents Importance Index (RII) while the satisfaction derived from the attributes was computed using the Residents Satisfaction Index (RSI).
Presented in Table 2 are the findings on the importance attached and satisfaction residents’ derived variables considered under the physical (including environmental) attributes of the border settlements. Findings revealed that contrast existed between level of importance residents attached to physical attributes and the satisfaction they derived from them in the boarder settlements across both states. In the border settlements of both states, water supply through borehole weighted highest both in terms importance attached and satisfaction derived by the residents. This was confirmed by the RII and RSI of Lagos State as 4.69 and 3.98 and that of Ogun State as 4.85 and 3.83. This implies that water supply through borehole was available in both quantity and quality that greatly satisfied the residents. This confirmed the assertion of UN-Habitat (2012) that about 80% of borehole water supply was sold to residents in the study area.
On findings on other variables in Lagos areas, a sharp contrast existed in the level of importance attached and satisfaction derived from physical attributes of the area such as electricity (4.81; 1.73), condition of road (4.47; 1.80), constructed drains (4.43; 2.87) and constructed bust stops (4.43; 2.87) among others. In Ogun border settlement areas, findings were similar as visible variation existed in importance attached and satisfaction derived from physical attributes such as electricity (4.65; 1.76), road (4.63; 1.89), constructed drains (4.59; 2.65), approved motor parks (4.39; 2.71), and housing condition (4.37; 2.65) among others. These findings implied that residents considered the identified physical attributes of the environment to be very important and they hold high esteem because to them because life would be uncomfortable and practically difficult. Nonetheless, the aspirations of the residents were cut short as the degrees of satisfaction with these variables were very low, thus, implying deprivation.
Table 2
RIIs and RSIs in the Study Area
Physical Attributes
|
Lagos
|
Ogun
|
RII
|
RSI
|
RII
|
RSI
|
Water supply through borehole
|
4.69
|
3.98
|
4.65
|
3.83
|
Water supply through well
|
3.83
|
2.25
|
4.09
|
2.34
|
Housing condition
|
3.87
|
3.09
|
4.37
|
2.82
|
Quality of the environment
|
3.74
|
1.05
|
3.93
|
1.68
|
Constructed drains
|
4.43
|
2.87
|
4.59
|
2.65
|
Road
|
4.47
|
2.80
|
4.63
|
1.82
|
Approved motor parks
|
3.81
|
1.78
|
4.39
|
2.71
|
Electricity
|
4.81
|
1.73
|
4.85
|
1.76
|
Constructed bus stops
|
4.43
|
2.67
|
4.26
|
1.46
|
Water supply through public tap
|
3.81
|
1.09
|
3.99
|
2.18
|
Computed Mean Deviations
|
4.18
|
2.33
|
4.37
|
2.35
|
Social Attributes
|
|
RII
|
RSI
|
RII
|
RSI
|
Private primary school
|
4.55
|
3.98
|
4.61
|
3.66
|
Private secondary school
|
4.49
|
3.84
|
4.58
|
3.56
|
Public secondary school
|
4.55
|
2.18
|
4.57
|
1.52
|
Clinic
|
4.38
|
2.35
|
4.66
|
3.07
|
Police post/Station
|
3.97
|
2.23
|
4.34
|
1.00
|
Waste collection services
|
4.35
|
3.22
|
4.55
|
2.03
|
Environmental sanitation/education
|
3.05
|
1.20
|
3.89
|
2.87
|
Level of sanitation
|
4.05
|
2.09
|
4.47
|
1.90
|
Neighbourhood friendliness
|
3.77
|
2.12
|
4.63
|
1.83
|
Public primary school
|
4.39
|
3.07
|
3.93
|
2.95
|
Community participation
|
3.82
|
2.91
|
4.41
|
2.98
|
Primary health centre
|
4.47
|
1.77
|
4.74
|
1.84
|
Occupancy rate
|
3.71
|
1.73
|
4.09
|
2.53
|
Postal office
|
3.01
|
1.67
|
3.62
|
2.63
|
Organised open space
|
3.66
|
1.59
|
4.71
|
2.68
|
Crime rate
|
3.68
|
2.58
|
3.86
|
1.93
|
General hospital
|
4.62
|
2.55
|
3.94
|
2.69
|
Computed Mean Deviations
|
4.03
|
2.41
|
4.32
|
2.45
|
Economic Attributes
|
RII
|
RSI
|
RII
|
RSI
|
Business opportunities
|
4.37
|
2.87
|
4.63
|
3.23
|
Modern market/Shopping complex
|
3.99
|
3.23
|
4.54
|
3.27
|
Traditional market
|
3.91
|
3.03
|
4.35
|
3.10
|
Amount Paid for waste Disposal
|
3.91
|
2.28
|
3.88
|
2.95
|
Amount paid for housing
|
3.85
|
2.19
|
3.91
|
2.97
|
Computed Mean Deviations
|
4.00
|
2.72
|
4.26
|
3.10
|
Studies such as Olowoporoku, Salami and Akintifonbo (2017) and Skifter (2008) classified variables such as neighbourhood friendliness, community participation, crime, occupancy rate and organised open space among others as part of the socio-cultural life of the residents. These variables have been established as residential attributes that aid peoples’ satisfaction with living in a particular environment. Also contained in Table 2 are findings on the level of importance and satisfaction residents attach to social attributes across the study area. Social attributes that residents attached high importance to and satisfaction derived from in the Lagos areas were general hospital (4.62; 2.55), private primary school (4.55; 3.98), public secondary school (4.55; 2.18), private secondary school (4.49; 3.84) and primary health care (4.47; 1.77). Others include public primary school (4.39), clinic (4.38), waste collection service (4.35; 3.22) and level of sanitation (4.05; 3.07). The findings revealed that the satisfactions residents’ derived from these social attributes in Lagos areas were very low relative to the importance attached to them. Impliedly, residents attached high importance to these social attributes however; the satisfaction they derived from their availability these social attributes of their community is low hence implying deprivation.
In Ogun State areas, the results of the social attributes that residents attached importance to and the satisfaction derived from them are primary health centre (4.74; 2.68), organized open space (4.71; 2.98), clinic (4.66; 3.07), neighbourhood friendliness (4.63; 1.83), private primary school (4.61; 3.61) private secondary school (4.58; 3.56), public secondary school (4.57; 1.22), police post/station (4.34; 1.00), community participation (4.41; 2.98) and occupancy rate (4.09; 2.53). The satisfaction residents’ attached to the provision of the social attributes in the study area were low hence connoting urban deprivation.
Also contained in Table 2 are findings on the importance attached and satisfaction derived from economic attributes in the study areas. Economic variables considered were found to be of high priority in meeting the needs of the residents in both states. Variables considered include environment for business opportunities, modern market, traditional market, amount paid for waste disposal and amount paid for housing. All these economic attributes were found to vary in levels of importance and satisfactions derived from them. Findings revealed residents in boarder settlements of Lagos attached high importance to business opportunities (4.37) and modern market/shopping complex (3.99), however, they were satisfied mostly with attributes of modern and traditional market as they weighted 3.23 and 3.03 respectively. Findings from Ogun State areas revealed that economic attributes that residents attached high importance to in the boarder settlements were business opportunities (4.63), modern market/shopping complex (4.54) and traditional market (4.35).While the level of satisfaction derived from these attributes were lower than the importance attached to them, business opportunities, modern market/shopping complex and traditional markets were the highly rated economic attributes in the border settlements.
3.3 Condition of Physical, Social and Environmental Facilities in Border Settlements
The study also examined the condition of physical, social and environmental facilities in border settlements as presented in Table 4. From the analysis, the mean Physical Facility Condition Indexes (PFCI) was 2.92 and 2.98 for Lagos and Ogun border settlements respectively. Also, the computed Social Facility Condition Indexes (SFCI) in Lagos areas was 3.10 while the computed value in Ogun was 3.16 while on economic facilities, the computed mean Economic Facility Condition Indexes (EFCI) was 3.20 and 3.32 in Lagos and Ogun border settlements respectively.
Findings revealed that in Lagos State, residents considered the conditions of some other facilities such as water supply through borehole (4.15), constructed drains (3.08) and water supply through well (2.93) to be high, thus having positive indexes higher than the computed mean PFCI (2.92). Other physical facilities such as transport facilities (2.74), roads (2.80) and electricity (2.71) had their indexes lower than the mean PFCI. In the border area of Ogun State, physical facilities considered by the residents which include water supply through borehole(3.94), water supply through well (3.19) and electricity (2.98) which had indexes higher than the mean PFCI (2.98). It can therefore be deduced that respondents share similar view on the state of available physical facilities across the study areas.
Table 3
Condition of Physical, Social and Economic Facilities
Physical Facilities
|
Lagos
|
Ogun
|
PFCI
|
PFCI-\(\stackrel{-}{\mathbf{P}\mathbf{A}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{I}}\)
|
PFCI
|
PFCI-\(\stackrel{-}{\mathbf{P}\mathbf{A}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{I}}\)
|
Water supply through well
|
2.93
|
0.01
|
3.19
|
0.21
|
Water supply through public tap
|
2.06
|
-0.86
|
2.33
|
-0.65
|
Water supply through borehole
|
4.15
|
1.23
|
3.94
|
0.96
|
Transport facilities
|
2.74
|
-0.18
|
2.45
|
-0.53
|
Road
|
2.80
|
-0.12
|
2.88
|
-0.10
|
Electricity
|
2.71
|
-0.21
|
2.98
|
0.00
|
Constructed drains
|
3.08
|
0.16
|
3.12
|
0.14
|
Mean PFCI
|
2.92
|
2.98
|
Social Facilities
|
|
SFCI
|
SFCI-\(\stackrel{-}{\mathbf{S}\mathbf{F}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{I}}\)
|
SFCI
|
SFCI-\(\stackrel{-}{\mathbf{S}\mathbf{F}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{I}}\)
|
Waste collection services
|
3.45
|
0.35
|
3.26
|
0.10
|
Public secondary school
|
2.83
|
-0.27
|
3.09
|
-0.07
|
Public primary school
|
2.29
|
-0.81
|
2.85
|
-0.31
|
Private secondary school
|
4.05
|
0.95
|
3.76
|
0.60
|
Private primary school
|
4.06
|
0.96
|
3.84
|
0.68
|
Primary health centre
|
2.61
|
-0.49
|
2.89
|
-0.27
|
Postal office
|
2.38
|
-0.72
|
2.54
|
-0.62
|
Police post/Station
|
3.45
|
0.35
|
3.35
|
0.19
|
Organised open space
|
2.68
|
-0.42
|
2.59
|
-0.57
|
General hospital
|
3.03
|
-0.07
|
3.34
|
0.18
|
Clinic
|
3.24
|
0.14
|
3.22
|
0.06
|
Mean SFCI
|
3.10
|
3.16
|
Economic Facilities
|
EFCI
|
EFCI-\(\stackrel{-}{\mathbf{E}\mathbf{F}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{I}}\)
|
EFCI
|
EFCI-\(\stackrel{-}{\mathbf{E}\mathbf{F}\mathbf{C}\mathbf{I}}\)
|
Traditional market
|
3.10
|
-0.10
|
3.37
|
0.05
|
Modern market/Shopping complex
|
3.31
|
0.11
|
3.27
|
-0.05
|
Mean EFCI
|
3.20
|
3.32
|
On social facilities findings from the border settlements of Lagos State revealed that private secondary school (4.05), private primary school (4.06), police post/station (3.45) waste collection services (3.45) and clinic (3,24) were the social facilities that residents in border settlements that weighted higher than the computed SCFI. Those with SFCI lower than the mean SFCI which signified poor condition were general hospital (3.03), public secondary school (2.83), organised open space (2.68), postal office (2.38) and public primary school (2.29). As regards social facilities in Ogun State, it was observed that private secondary school (3.76), private primary school (3.84), police post/station (3.35), general hospital (3.34), waste collection services (3.26) and clinic (3.22) were ranked above the computed mean SFCI (3.16). Social facilities which were ranked below the mean SFCI were public secondary school (3.09), public primary school (2.85), postal office (2.54) and organised open space (2.59). The implication of social facilities ranked below the computed mean FCI is that they fall below what was considered by the residents to be a bench mark for their perceptions about the general condition of the social facilities considered. The computed mean EFCI for border settlements in Lagos and Ogun States were 3.20 and 3.32 respectively. Findings from both states showed similar responses. Economic facilities considered higher than the EFCI was modern market/shopping complex while traditional market was found to have lower EFCI.