Survey Studies
Demographic profile of informants
The medicinal uses of plants were collected from 30 informants living in 12 villages of Gwadabawa and Illela LGAs. These village communities are localities situated in a dry arid desertic and rocky environments. Hence, these terranes predict and define the exact nature of the traditional knowledge on medicinal plants utilized to treat the wound. The number and percentage of informants in terms of age category and occupation are provided in Table 4.1.
Surveyed medicinal plants for wound healing
This study recorded 40 medicinal remedies prepared from over 40 plants to treat various wounds. Out of the 40 plants, more than 25 species were used to treat common injuries and bleeding wounds, four species to cure cut wounds and burns, two specie cure pus wound and boils, and one species each, for whitlow, menstrual pains and eye injuries (Table 4.2). It was noted that the 40 species belonged to 38 genera and 18 families (Table 4.3). Among the 40 species recorded, dicots were represented by 38 species belonging to 38 genera and 16 families, while monocots were two species belonging to two genera and two families (Table 4.3). Combretaceae and Fabaceae were the dominant families and contributed to wound healing with 7 species each. Leguminosae and Malvaceae were represented each by six and five species respectively, followed by Sapotaceae with two species. The remaining 13 families were recorded each, with a single specie only (Table 4.4). recorded with single species only (Table 4). The entire reported genera were found as mono-specific (Table 2).
Table 1
Number and Percentage (in parenthesis) of informants based on their basic profiles
Basic profiles
|
Non-Herbal healers
|
Herbal healers
|
Total informants
|
Recorded Age
|
Male
(n = 25)
|
Female
(n = 0)
|
Total
(n = 25)
|
Male
(n = 5)
|
Female
(n = 0)
|
Total
(n = 5)
|
Male
(n = 30)
|
Female
(n = 0)
|
Total
(n = 30)
|
31–40 years
|
5(20.0)
|
0
|
5(20.0)
|
1 (20.0)
|
0
|
1 (20.0)
|
6 (20.0)
|
0
|
6 (20.0)
|
41–60 years
|
10(40.0)
|
0
|
10(40.0)
|
2(40.0)
|
0
|
2(40.0)
|
12(40.0)
|
0
|
12(40.0)
|
61–70 years
|
6 (24.0)
|
0
|
6(24.0)
|
2 (40.0)
|
0
|
2 (40.0)
|
7(23.3)
|
0
|
7(23.3)
|
> 71 years
|
4 (16.0)
|
0
|
4(16.0)
|
1(20.0)
|
0
|
1(20.0)
|
5(16.6)
|
0
|
5(16.6)
|
Occupation
Below 30 years
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Baber
|
10(40.0)
|
0
|
10(40.0)
|
10(40.0)
|
0
|
10(40.0)
|
10(33.3)
|
0
|
10(33.3)
|
Blacksmith
|
7(28.0)
|
0
|
7(28.0)
|
7(28.0)
|
0
|
7(28.0)
|
7(23.3)
|
0
|
7(23.3)
|
Charmer
|
2(8.0)
|
0
|
2(8.0)
|
2(8.0)
|
0
|
2(8.0)
|
2(6.7)
|
0
|
2(6.7)
|
Farmer
|
9(36.0)
|
0
|
9(36.0)
|
9(36.0)
|
0
|
9(36.0)
|
9(30.0)
|
0
|
9(30.0)
|
Herb Seller
|
2(8.0)
|
0
|
2(8.0)
|
2(8.0)
|
0
|
2(8.0)
|
2(6.7)
|
0
|
2(6.7)
|
Herder
|
1(4.0)
|
0
|
1(4.0)
|
1(4.0)
|
0
|
1(4.0)
|
1(3.3)
|
0
|
1(3.3)
|
Hunter
|
4(16.0)
|
0
|
4(16.0)
|
4(16.0)
|
0
|
4(16.0)
|
4(13.3)
|
0
|
4(13.3)
|
Trader/Business
|
2(8.0)
|
0
|
2(8.0)
|
2(8.0)
|
0
|
2(8.0)
|
2(6.6)
|
0
|
2(6.6)
|
Table 2
List of ethnomedicinal plants used for wound healing
Family
|
Scientific name
|
Source Community
|
Local name
|
Ailment uses
|
Plant part use
|
Habit
|
Mode of Preparation (Therapeutic indications)
|
UR
|
UV
|
CF
|
RI
|
Fabecea
|
Acacia nilotica L.
|
Illela town, Hura,
Gaido, Chimmola
Tungan-Kwangi
|
Bagaaruuwaa
|
Wounds, cuts
|
stembark
|
tree
|
heal both fresh and old wounds, even with puss; wash and apply powdered drug; takes some 5 days to heal.
|
8
|
0.27
|
11.8
|
0.56
|
Leguminosae
|
Acacia sieberana DC
|
Araba, Tudun doki
|
Farar kaya
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stembark
|
tree
|
spray mixed powdered herb on wound to stop bleeding; heals within a week.
|
2
|
0.07
|
2.9
|
0.14
|
Malvaceae
|
Adansonia digitata (L.) Kuntze
|
Galadi
|
kuka
|
burns
|
stem
|
tree
|
powder of plant drug divided into two portions: 1st` portions for spraying on wound, the other portion is soaked in water and drunk; reliefs pain
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Leguminosae
|
Afromosia lexiflora (Benth. ex Baker)
|
Gaido Illela
|
Makarfo
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stembark
|
shrub
|
powdered drug is sprayed on wound; wound heals; also stops bleeding.
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Anonaceae
|
Annona senegalensis Pers.
|
Gaido Illela
Tungan-Kwangi
Gatti, Galadi
|
Gwanda Daji
|
bleeding wounds
|
roots
|
shrub
|
powdered drug is sprayed on wound; can as well be soaked and drink; also stops bleeding.
|
4
|
0.13
|
5.9
|
0.28
|
Combretaceae
|
Anogeisus leocarpus D.C.
|
Araba
|
Marke
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stembark
|
tree
|
wound is washed with alcohol and powdered plant drug is sprayed; heals within 9 days
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Meliaceae
|
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
|
Gatti, Bakin Dutsi,
Hura
|
Dogonyaro
|
wounds
|
stem bark
|
tree
|
broken earthen pot + herb is mixed and powdered and applied or spray on wounds/burns. Heals within 5 days
|
3
|
0.10
|
4.4
|
0.21
|
Zygophyllaceae
|
Balanites aegyptica Del
|
Gaido, Galadi
|
Aduwa
|
wounds
|
leaves
|
tree
|
powdered drug is sprayed on wound; takes some 3 days to heal; also stops bleeding.
|
3
|
0.10
|
4.4
|
0.21
|
Leguminosae, Capparaceae
|
Bauhinia rufescens Lam.; Maerus crassifolia Forssk.
|
Tungan-Kwangi
|
Jirga
|
burns
|
leaves
|
shrub, t
|
spray powder on burns
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Sapotaceae
|
Butyrospermum paradoxum (C.F.Gaertn.) Hepper
|
Salame
|
kade
|
wound
|
stem bark
|
tree
|
powder mixture of drug is applied on fresh or old wound as a result of fire
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Fabaceae
|
Cajanus cajans L
|
Araba
|
Adua'a
|
Menstrual bleeding
|
stembark
|
shrub
|
powdered herb is mixed with kunu (gruel) and drank orally
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Apocynaceae
|
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton
|
Galadi
|
Tunfafiya
|
wounds
|
stem
|
shrub
|
spray powder drug on wound
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Caricaceae
|
Carica papaya Linn.
|
Bakin Dutsi, Galadi
|
Gwanda
|
Whitlow, wounds
|
leaves, seeds
root bark
|
herb
|
mixed plants powder is spray on fresh wound/whitlow to effect healing.
|
2
|
0.07
|
2.9
|
0.14
|
Amaranthaceae
|
Celosia laxa Schum. & Thonn.
|
Salame
|
Magarya Nannafa
|
wounds bleeding
|
leaves
|
herb
|
spray drug powder to stop bleeding
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Rutaceae
|
Citrus aurantiifolia (lime)
|
Gaido
|
Lemun Tsami
|
wounds
|
fruits
|
tree
|
Koranic incantations are inscribed on a slate and wash out with lime. The wash is applied on the wound to effect cure.
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Combretaceae
|
Combretum collinum Fresen
|
Gatti
|
Taramniyaa
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stem bark
|
tree
|
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Combretaceae
|
Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC.; C. lamprocarpum
|
Galadi
|
Taramniya
|
wounds
|
stem
|
tree
|
spray powder drug on wound; soak I water/milk and drink
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Combretaceae
|
Combretum micranthum G. Don
|
Lakoda, Galadi,
Hura
|
Geza, Geeza
|
Wounds
bleeding
|
leaves
|
tree
|
boil with puss-heals within 3 days on squeezing and applying fresh leaves or powdered drug on infected wounds
|
4
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.28
|
Combretaceae
|
Combretum nigricans Lepr.
|
Chimmola
|
Tsiriri
|
wounds
|
stem bark
|
tree
|
powdered drug mix with farin kasa, and mixed apply on wound
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Fabaceae
|
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn.
|
Gatti
|
Dúnɗúú
|
wounds, bleeding
|
Roots
|
shrub
|
powder of mixture, including alum, is sprayed on washed wound. Cure is affected within some 3 − 2 days
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Fabaceae
|
Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev.
|
Chimmola
|
Gawo
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stem bark
|
tree
|
spray powdered herb on wound;
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Uritricaceae
|
Ficus platyphylla Del
|
Tudun doki
|
Gamji
|
wounds
|
stem
|
tree
|
wash wound with cold water and apply powdered drug
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Combretaceae
|
Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel.
|
Lakoda, Bakin Dutsi, Salame,
Tungan-Kwangi
|
Saabaara
|
eye injury
wounds
Eczeama
|
leaves
|
shrub
|
chew and apply leave sap on injurious eye
|
4
|
0.13
|
5.9
|
0.28
|
Leguminosae
|
Indigofera sp.
|
Lakoda
|
Babah, Baabaa
|
|
whole plant
|
shrub
|
powdered mixed herb is sprayed on wound; 3 applications can effect cure
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Convolvulaceae
|
Ipomoea argentaurata Hallier f.
|
Gatti
|
Káá fí bóókáá
|
wounds
|
whole plant
|
herb
|
Mixed plants powder is spray on fresh wound to stop bleeding. Heals within a week.
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Fabaceae
|
Mimosa pudica L.
|
Chimmola
|
Darma/kama walkinka
|
wounds
|
leaves
|
herb
|
Squeeze and apply on wound
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Leguminosae
|
Parkia clappertoniana Keay
|
Salame
|
dauruwa
|
|
stem
|
tree
|
apply powdered mixed drug on wound, after cleaning puss
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Poaceae
|
Pennisetum hordeoides (Lam.) Steud.
|
Chimmola
|
K'yasuwa
|
wounds, bleeding
|
leaves
|
grass
|
Squeeze and apply on wound
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Gramineae
|
Pennisetum pedicellatum Trin
|
Tungan-Kwangi
|
Kyasuwa
|
cuts
|
leaves
|
grass
|
Chew leaves and apply on cuts
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Leguminosae
|
Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst.; P. thoningi
|
Chimmola
|
kalgoo
|
wounds
|
leaves
|
shrub
|
mix drug is drunk
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Anacardiaceae
|
Rhus insignis Hook. f.
|
Bakin Dutsi
|
Kasheshe
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stembark
|
shrub
|
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Pedaliaceae
|
Rogeria adenophylla J.Gay
|
Gaido
|
Loda
|
wounds, bleeding
|
roots
|
herb
|
roots of plant are powdered and applied on fresh wounds; stops bleeding as well.
|
2
|
0.07
|
2.9
|
0.14
|
Malvaceae
|
Sida ovata Forssk
|
Chimmola, Galadi
|
Miyar tsanya
|
Wounds, whitlow
|
leaves
|
herb
|
spray powder of drug on fresh or dried wound
|
2
|
0.07
|
2.9
|
0.14
|
|
Sterculia setigera Delile
|
Bakin Dutsi
Tudun doki
|
Kukkuukii
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stembark
|
tree
|
died and powdered herb is sprayed on wound, heals within a week; also stops bleeding.
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Fabaceae
|
Tamarindus indica L.
|
Araba, Chimmola
Tungan-Kwangi
|
Tsamiya
|
wounds, bleeding
|
Fruits
stem bark
Roots
|
tree
|
Apply mixed powdered drug on fresh or old wounds
|
3
|
0.10
|
4.4
|
0.21
|
Combretaceae
|
Terminalia avicenniodes Guill. & Perr. Shrub or tree, d
|
Araba
|
Baushi
|
wounds
|
stem bark
|
tree
|
spray powdered herb on wound; takes about a week to heal.
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
|
Uraria picta (Jacq.) Desv. ex DC.
|
Gaido
|
Daakushee
|
wounds, bleeding
|
whole plant
|
herb
|
powdered spray on wound effect healing within 30 days; stops bleeding; can as well be infused and bath in for healing
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Sapotaceae
|
Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn
|
Araba
|
Kadai
|
wounds, bleeding
|
stembark
|
tree
|
spray powdered drug on fresh or old wound; stops bleeding; heals within 5–7 days
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Verbenaceae
|
Vitex doniana Sweet Müll.Arg.
|
Chimmola
|
Dunya
|
boil, wounds
|
leaves
|
tree
|
leaves are pound to make gumba and drunk; stops puss
|
1
|
0.03
|
1.5
|
0.07
|
Malvaceae
|
Waltheria indica L.
|
Lakoda, Bakin Dutsi, Galadi
|
Gobir Hausa
Yankufa
|
wounds, bleeding
|
Flowers
whole plant
roots
|
herb
|
powdered mixed herb is sprayed on wound; stops bleeding, especially during circumcision; 10 days to heal
|
4
|
0.13
|
5.9
|
0.28
|
Abbreviations: * UR: Use Reports; UV: Use Value; CF: Citation Frequency; RI: Relative Importance |
Table 3
Specie distribution in different taxa
Taxa
|
Dicot
|
Monocot
|
Total
|
Specie
|
38
|
2
|
40
|
Genus
|
38
|
2
|
40
|
Family
|
16
|
2
|
18
|
Table 4
List of families with several genus and species
Family Name
|
No. of genus
|
No. of species
|
Poaceae*
|
1
|
1
|
Amaranthaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Anacardiaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Anonaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Anonaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Anonaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Caricaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Combretaceae
|
7
|
7
|
Convolvulaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Fabaceae
|
7
|
7
|
Gramineae*
|
1
|
1
|
Leguminosae
|
6
|
6
|
Malvaceae
|
5
|
5
|
Pedaliaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Rutaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Sapotaceae
|
2
|
2
|
Uritricaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Zygophyllaceae
|
1
|
1
|
Total
|
40
|
40
|
Notes: *Monocot families; Others are dicot
|
Table 5
Specie distribution in different life forms
Life form (habit/habitat)
|
Dicot
|
Monocot
|
Total
|
Climber
|
1
|
0
|
1
|
Herbaceous
|
6
|
2
|
8
|
Shrub
|
12
|
0
|
12
|
Tree
|
20
|
0
|
20
|
Life form
The surveyed plant species’ life form, which also implies the plants habit/habitat showed most of the plants surveyed for wound healing and other related ailments as having a record of trees (20 species), followed by shrubs (12 species) and herb (8 species). Only one climber specie was recorded (Table 4.5). These results are relatively in line with those of previous ethnobotanical studies conducted for within the extreme Northwest region of the country, which has basically a Sahel vegetation. The frequent use of medicines from trees and shrubs plant species here, could be attributed to the desertic nature of the place, which does not accommodate a rich biodiversity of other plants life form that cannot withstand drought and other arid weather conditions, among other reasons [19],[7],[2],[20].
Parts used
In this study the plant part used for every therapeutic indication was recorded., the stembark was the most used plant part in 15 preparations with 37.5% to treat wounds, closely followed by the leaves in 12 preparations with 30.0%, the root and whole plant were reportedly use in five and four preparations with 12.5%, and 10% respectively. Fruit and flower were the least used parts in two and one preparation with 5.0% and 2.5% respectively (Figure 4.1). The results are in line with the findings of several documented studies carried out in different localities of Northwestern Nigeria, which showed stembark and leaves as frequently used plant part [19],[7],[2],[22]. The reason behind the extensive use of stem back would be obvious when one considers that this region is arid in nature, with very low amount of rainfall and hence there would be great conservation and retention of secondary metabolites present in the stem back due to constant metabolic activity triggered by harsh environmental conditions.
Mode of preparation
The informants prepared and prescribed the medicine mainly in the form of powder (70.0%), followed by some form of extraction (12.5%), and sap or latex or juice (10.0%). The slightest use was recorded for paste and oil (0.5% each) (Figure 4.2). The following reasons might be attributed: the first line of action after obtaining the plant for medicine is most often to grind or pound the biomass into powder thereby increasing the surface area of contact. Hence, the locals spray these topically for easier access to the site of action. The drug in such form may exhibit a greater efficacy of its potential. More so, water is not required for preparation here in case the therapeutic properties in the drug become deluded, as in the case of infusion and juice preparations. Meanwhile, it was revealed by the informants that a great level of success is often achieved with this mode of preparation of the crude drug, hence the active secondary metabolites in the plant responsible for therapy maybe readily and biochemically involved via this means.
Mode of administration
Of the various medicinal remedies recorded from the informants, the major method of medicinal administration/ route of application was by spraying topically (65.0%). However, the descriptions by informants also revealed that some preparations were taken through the following ways: the medicinal preparation was simply applied, which points to the fact that the mostly powdered crude drug is suspended on a vehicle such as oil and applied topically (27.5%); some others are used as washed and drunk (12.5%) (Figure 4.3). These observations follow results of previous studies conducted within communities of same geographic regions of Northwestern Nigeria [21],[22],[23].
Use of medicine with ingredients
In general, the information from the respondents from this study revealed that although more than 60% of the medicines are prepared and administered from a single plant, some 30 to 40% however, are prepared as concoctions and in some few cases, incantations or verses from the holy books are recited in addition. For example, a TMP in Gaido village of Illela LGA revealed that Koranic verses are written on a slate and the writings washed out with leave extract from Citrus aurantiifolia (lime) following the application of the wash to effectively treat and cure wounds. In another typical concoction therapy, the stembark powder of Acacia sieberina are mixed with those of three plants (Evolvulus alsiniodes-Kafi mallam *(H); Merremia tridentata-Yan bururu (H) and Annonia senegalensis-Gwanda daji (H)) and the resulting mixture is sprayed on wounds to stop bleeding and effect cure. (Table 2). It has been earlier related that the frequent use of multiple plant products and other materials among the traditional healers could be attributed to synergic reactions [24]. Thus, it is common thought, without relating any scientific bases, to reason alone that treatment using a cocktail or concoction mixture has more healing power than that of a single plant.
Conservation status
According to IUCN conservation status [25][26], most of the surveyed plants were listed as stable, without any conservation danger. However, it was noted that Acacia nilotica, though listed as endangered in 2001[25] is now considered as ‘least concern’ in status. Few of the plants considered vulnerable and hence threaten species were: Vitellaria paradona, Vitex doniana and less likely Carica papaya, due to data deficiency.
Ethnobotanical indices
Use value (UV)
Use values are high when there are many valuable reports for a plant and low when few reports are related to its use [15]. According to the UV analysis, the most frequently used species to heal the wound in the study area was Acacia nilotica (UV: 0.27, use reports: 8), followed by Annonia senegalesis, Guiera senegalensis and Waltheria indica, all with same used value (0.13, 4); Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptica, Combretum micranthum and Tamarindus indica (0.10, 3), and Carica papaya and Sida ovata (0.07, 2). The least frequently used species were noted to have a used value of 0.03 with a single-use report, each) (Table 4.2). The highest use values shown by some medicinal plants indicated that these species are highly preferred to heal various types of wounds. The low UV is due to the less effective use of particular species in the study area.
Citation Frequency (CF) and Relative Importance (RI)
In the present study, CF values ranged from 1.5 to 11.8, and RI ranged from 0.56 to 0.07 (Table 4.2). The highest value was recorded for Acacia nilotica (CF: 11.8, RI: 0.56), followed by Annonia senegalesis, Guiera senegalensis and Waltheria indica (5.9, 0.28), Azadirachta indica, Balanites aegyptica, Combretum micranthum and Tamarindus indica (4.4, 0.21), Carica papaya and Sida (2.9, 0.14). The lowest values of CF: 1.5 and RI: 0.07 were recorded for the other plant species each, as shown in Table 4.2. The plants with high CF and RI values indicated their multi-use, widely known in the local communities, and abundantly distributed. The local communities collected the plants from the wild habitat without cultivating for their immediate need. In most cases when supply is finished, they would have to wait for the next season to harvest same from the wild.