3.2.1) Leaf forms:
It has been observed that microphylls was the dominant leaf form among the life form having 24 species and constituents about 33% of the total plants, followed by Leptophylls (24%), Nanophyll (16%), Mesophyll (13%), megaphyll (10%), while only one species (1.4%) was belonging to Aphyllus (Fig. 4).
3.2.2) Raunkier life forms of the vegetation:
The plants observed inside the area were classified into various life forms. These life forms were Hemicryptophytes, Nanophanerophytes, Therophytes, Liana, Parasitic, Mesophanerophytes, Megaphanerophytes, Geophytes, Micrphanerophytes and Chameophytes. It had been observed after analysis of the collected data that the Hemicryptophytes and Nanophanerophytes were dominant and constituents about 52% of the total plant’s species. While therophytes constituents about 20% out of the total plant’s species, followed by mesophanerophytes (8%), Megaphanerphytes (6%), Geophytes (6%), Liana (3%), Chameophytes (6%), Microphanerophytes (1.4%) and Parasitic plants (1.4%) (Fig. 5).
3.3) Abundant and rare species of the area:
The criteria based upon which the species was consider either dominant or rare was total IVI of the species from the obtained data. The dominant and rare for each group i.e Tree, shrubs, and herbs, was analyzed separately in excel sheet and then it is shown through separates sunburst graphs. The results show that among the tree species the dominant trees were Pinus wallichiana (IVI = 2367), while the rare species observed Was Quercus baloot (IVI = 4). Among shrubs the dominant species observed inside the area were Viburnum grandiflorum (IVI = 2118), Buxus wallichiana (IVI = 1697), While the rare species among the shrubs were Rubus ulmifolius (IVI = 7). It had been observed that the dominant species among herbs was Bistorta amplexicaulis (IVI = 450) and rare was Solidago virga-aurea IVI = 8) see Fig. 6,7 and 8.
3.3) Relationship between species abundance and Edaphic gradients
The Edaphic factors verses plants species abundance were correlated to check whether these variables are significantly representing the vegetation abundance of the area or not. The data from edaphic variables and species abundance were analyzed in” R” software version 4.0.4 through Pearson correlation analysis. The result from the analysis shows that Soil Organic matter, TDS, EC, CaCo3 and moisture contents shows a linear correlation (i. e positive correlation) with species abundance with degree of correlation R = 0.16, R = 0.33, R = 0.21, R = 0.20, R = 0.47 respectively at the level of significant with p value < 0.05. while the relationship between pH and plants species abundance shows a negative correlation with R = -0.19 and p value 0.001 (Fig. 9 a,b,c,d,e and f).
3.4) Relationship of species richness with Edaphic factors
The correlation analysis between species richness and edaphic factors shows that soil pH, TDS and EC are negative correlated with species richness with R = -0.65, R = -046 and R = -0.78 at the level of significance with p value 0.05. The relationship between soil organic matter, Calcium carbonates and moisture contents were positive and were correlated linearly with R = 0.89 and R= 0.78, R = 0.84 and p- value 0.05 (Fig.10 a, b, c, d, e, f ).
3.4) Species area curve graph
We used the PC-ORD software version 5 to find that either the quadrat size was adequate or not through abundance data combined with Sorenson distance value in the form of species area curve and compositional area curve (Ahmad et al.,. 2016). The result shows that the quadrat number 10 shows maximum numbers of appearing of species and are continued up to quadrat number 40, while when reaching to the last Quadrat, the numbers of species become minimize inside the area (Fig. 11).
3.5) Cluster analysis (CA)
The result of cluster analysis shows total quadrats samples were clustered into about 3 major plants communities with 50% information remaining percentage (Fig. 12).
3.9) Formations of different communities:
3.9.1) Pinus wallichiana-Berberis lyceum-Impatiens brachycentra, PBI Community
The name for a community is given based on the indicator species analysis (ISA) of the community. This community was observed at an elevation range of 1666-2882m. The indicators species of this community were Pinus wallichiana, Berberis lyceum, and Impatiens brachycentra of tree, Shrubs and Herbs respectively.
The indicators species observed inside this community clustered in relation to the environmental and Edaphic gradients at low Altitude, low PH, low silt contents, and high percentage of calcium carbonates, Clay, EC, moisture, Organic matter, higher TDS and at slope angle, at significant level (p ≤ 0.005).
The remaining tree species of this community having high IVI were Abies pindrow, Rhus javanica, Quercus dilatata, Pistacia integerrima, Juglans regia, Quercus incana, Rhus succedanea var. himalaica, Quercus semecarpifolia, Salix karelinii, Litsea monopetala, Celtis caucasica, while the tree species having less IVI were Prunus persica, Diospyros lotus, Pistacia chinensis subsp. Integerrima, Taxus baccata, Quercus baloot. The dominant shrubs species having high IVI of this community were Buxus wallichiana, Viburnum grandiflorum, Berberis lyceum, Viburnum cotinifolium, Indigofera heterantha, Rosa moschata, Hedera nepalensis, Sorbaria tomentosa, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Isodon rugosus, Rubus ellipticus, Berberis asiatica, Berberis, Rubus fruticosus parkeriana, Caesalpinia decapetala var. pubescens, Crataegus songarica, Rubus fruticosus, Berberis vulgaris, while the rare shrubs having lower IVI were Rubus ulmifolius, Rubus occidentalis, Zanthoxylum armatum, Rumex hastatus, Artemisia absinthium, Rosa webbiana and Debregeasia saeneb. The herbs plants species having high IVI associated with this community were, Dryopteris ramosa, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Arisaema flavum, Agrostis gigantea, Leonurus cardiaca, Arisaema jacquemontii, Dryopteris marginalis, Urtica dioca, Cuscuta reflaxa, Fragaria nubicola, Impatiens brachycentra, Carex cardiolepis, Bergenia ciliata, Tussilago farfara, Strobilanthes urticifolia, Adiantum emarginatum, Lindelofia longiflora, Adiantum venustum, Cirsium falconeri, Impatiens glandulifera, Muhlenbergia duthieana, Sarcococca pruniformis, Diplazium esculentum, Ajuga bracteosa, Microstegium nudum, Saccharum ravennae, Cynodon dactylon and Rubus sanctus, while the herbs species having lower IVI in this community were Eulaliopsis binata, Solidago virga-aurea, Galinsoga parviflora, Achyranthes aspera, Chrysopogon gryllus, Clinopodium umbrosum, Ranunculus laetus var. kashmiricus, Taraxacum officinale, Adiantum caudatum, Pteris cretica, Rumex dentatus, and Adiantum capillus-veneris.
Regarding with the Edaphic and environmental variables of this community, pH= 4.91-6.8, EC= 43-687 (µS), TDS= 44-428 (ppm), CacO3 = 4.04-16.12%, OM= 0.85-9.85%, Moisture contents = 2-32%, 14-52%, sand = 2-52, Clay = 10-78%, Slope = 113-1680 Fig 13, 14 and 15.
3.9.2 3.9.2) Quercus incana-Boxus wallichiana-Agrostis gigantea, QBA Community
The name for a community is given based on the indicator species analysis (ISA) of the community. This community was observed at an elevation range of 1824-2258m.
The indicators species observed inside this community were clustered in relation to the environmental and Edaphic gradients with, acidic pH, low silt contents, and lower percentage of Calcium carbonates, low percentage of clay, moderate amount of Organic matter, high level of TDS and EC, and high level of moisture contents and high slope angle, at significant level (p ≤ 0.005).
The indicator species of this community are Quercus incana, Boxus wallichiana and Agrostis gigantea. The remaining tree species of this community having high IVI were Abies pindrow, Rhus javanica, Quercus dilatata, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Rosa moschata etc (Fig 16, 17 and 18).
3.9.3) Abies pindow- Rubus fruticosus-Poa annua community, ARP Community
The indicators species of this community were Abies pindrow, Rubus fruticocus and Poa annua of Tree, shrub, and herb. The Elevation range of this community was 2246-2824m. The indicators species observed inside this community had shown a significant positive relation with altitude, EC, and less amount of CaCO3, moderate amount of clay and silt contents, moderate moisture, neutral Ph, and less slope angle, while it was observed that these indicators were negatively correlated with the percentage of Organic matter and TDS significant level (p ≤ 0.005).
The remaining dominant tree species having higher IVI were Pinus wallichiana, Rhus javanica, Quercus dilatata, and Quercus incana, while the trees species having lower IVI value and rare were Cedrus deodara, Pistacia chinensis subsp. Integerrima, Taxus baccata, Olea europaea and Salix karelinii. The abundant shrubs species of this community having higher IVI were Viburnum grandiflorum, Buxus wallichiana, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Rosa moschata, Vitis vinifera subsp. Sylvestris, Berberis lycium, Hedera nepalensis, Caesalpinia decapetala var. pubescens , Sorbaria tomentosa and Rosa webbiana, while the shrubs species having lower IVI and rare are Crataegus songarica, Berberis asiatica, Isodon rugosus, Viburnum cotinifolium, Rumex hastatus, Zanthoxylum armatum, Desmodium elegans and Rosa microphylla.
The dominant herbs species of this community having high IVI were, Urtica dioca, Carex cardiolepis, Impatiens brachycentra, Rumex dentatus, Dryopteris marginalis, Muhlenbergia duthieana, Eragrostis tenella, Cirsium falconeri, Sarcococca pruniformis, Dryopteris ramose, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Fragaria nubicola, Poa annua, Adiantum capillus-veneris, Arisaema jacquemontii, Clinopodium umbrosum, Lactuca brunoniana, Agrostis gigantea, Arisaema flavum, Taraxacum officinale, Adiantum caudatum, Bergenia ciliate and Cynodon dactylon, while the rare herbs species of this community having lower IVI were Achyranthes aspera, Tussilago farfara, Adiantum venustum, Strobilanthes urticifolia, Lindelofia longiflora, Galinsoga parviflora, Adiantum emarginatum, Ranunculus laetus var. kashmiricus, Pteris cretica, Juncus inflexus, Diplazium esculentum, Chrysopogon gryllus and Microstegium nudum.
Regarding with the Edaphic and environmental gradients of this community, pH = 4.7-7.6, EC = 72-380 (µS), TDS = 51-239 (ppm), CacO3 = 6.36-19.13%, OM = 3.81-10.1%, Moisture contents = 5-29%, Silt = 16-54%, sand = 6-36%, Clay = 13-67%, Slope = 118-1640 (Fig 19, 20, 21).
3.9.4) Taxus baccata- Rubus ellipticus- Potentilla atrorubens community, TRP Community
The indicators species of this community were Taxus baccata, Rubus ellipticus and Potentella atrorubens height range of this community is 2200-3028m. The indicators species observed inside this community are clustered in relation to the environmental and Edaphic gradients with lower Altitude, less amount of calcium carbonate, less amount of clay contents, lower slope angle, less TDS, high pH, and high silt contents, while moderate moisture and medium EC were observed inside this community at significance level with (p ≤ 0.005).
The dominant tree species of this community having higher IVI were Quercus incana, Pinus wallichiana, Abies pindrow, Litsea monopetala and Rhus javanica, while the tree species having lower IVI in this community were Cedrus deodara and Quercus dilatata. The dominant shrubs species of this community having lower IVI were the species of Viburnum grandiflorum, Buxus wallichiana, Rubus ellipticus, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Zanthoxylum armatum, and Sorbaria tomentosa while the rare species having lower IVI was Isodon rugosus. The dominant herbs species of this community having higher IVI were Bistorta amplexicaulis, Muhlenbergia duthieana, Dryopteris ramose, Arisaema flavum, Eulaliopsis binate, Urtica dioica, Potentilla atrorubens, Chrysopogon gryllus, Achyranthes aspera, Cyperus rotundus, Adiantum emarginatum, Eragrostis tenella, Oenothera rosea, Agrostis gigantea, Rumex dentatus, Sarcococca pruniformis, Agrostis stolonifera, Arisaema jacquemontii, Salvia aethiopis, Cannabis sativa, Impatiens brachycentra and Verbascum thapsus, while the rare herbs species of this community having lower IVI are Diplazium esculentum, Tussilago farfara, Dryopteris marginalis, Chaerophyllum aquilegifolium, Cirsium falconeri, Salvia plebia, Clinopodium umbrosum and Carex cardiolepis.
Regarding with the Edaphic and environmental gradients of this community, pH = 5.1-7.2, EC = 53-403 (µS)s, TDS = 49-269 (ppm), CaCO3 = 2-18%, OM = 1.7-9.65%, Moisture contents = 1-8%, Silt = 23-68%, sand = 8-61%, Clay = 10-41%, Slope = 109-1460 (Fig 22, 23 and 24).
3.6) Two-way cluster analysis (TWCA)
To analyze the distribution pattern of plants species inside the sampling plots, we used PC-ORD version 5 for two-way cluster analysis (TWCA). This analysis was done based upon the presence or absence of a species i. e 0,1 data through Sorenson measures. The graph contains two types of bubbles i.e Black and white. The black bubbles/ dots representing the presence of a species inside that specific quadrat, while white bubble/dots show the absence of species inside that specific quadrat. A total of 3 major plants communities were constructed from the 60 quadrats and 114 species (Fig. 25).
3.8) Ordinations of quadrats/ Detrended Correspondent analysis (DCA)
The DCA results shows that most quadrats taken were more related with each other and arranged inside the same ordination, while the only single quadrat differentiated from other was T1Q2W. The results also shows that community 1 and community 2 were more correlated with each other than community 3. The quadrat number T3Q4W, T4Q3W, T3Q2W, T4Q4W, T6Q1W of 1st community and quadrats number T7Q2, T5Q4W, T5Q1W, T5Q3W, T6Q6W of community 2nd show similarities. It has been observed that, quadrat number T1Q1E, T5Q1E, T1Q1E, T4Q4E of community 3 shows similarities with quadrats number T7Q5W, T7Q3W, T6Q5W, and T6Q4W of community 2 (W= West and E = East). The ordinations of westerns quadrats may be due to the presence of less amount of total dissolved solvents, electrical conductivity, calcium carbonates, moisture contents and more amount of sand and silt contents inside the soil.
3.9) Ordinations of plants species / Detrended Correspondent analysis (DCA):
The result of CCA analysis shows that the species of Cedrus deodara, Chaerophyllum aquilegifolium, Oenothera rosea, Verbascum thapsus, Salvia aethiopis, Salvia plebia, Cuscuta reflexa, Potentilla atrorubens, Litsea monopetala, Diospyros lotus, Rhus javanica, Poa annua, Quercus semecarpifolia, Berberis asiatica, Adiantum caudatum, Eragrostis tenella, Quercus incana, Viburnum grandiflorum, Rumex dentatus, Bistorta amplexicaulis, Urtica dioica, Rubus sanctus, Zanthoxylum armatum, Pistacia integerrima, Pinus wallichiana, Adiantum emarginatum, Agrostis gigantea, Agrostis stolonifera, Cyperus rotundus, Microstegium nudum, Rubus fruticosus, Cirsium falconeri, Buxus wallichiana, Diospyros lotus, Pistacia chinensis subsp. Integerrima, Bergenia ciliata, Berberis asiatica, Sarcococca pruniformis, Chrysopogon gryllus, Rosa microphylla, Isodon rugosus, Agrostis stolonifera and Cirsium falconeri are lies on the same axis. The species of Rubus ulmifolius, Crataegus songarica, Sorbaria tomentosa, Tussilago farfara, Berberis vulgaris, Quercus baloot, Rosa webbiana, Berberis parkeriana, Vitis vinifera subsp. Sylvestris, Rosa moschata, Dryopteris marginalis, Celtis caucasica, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, Viburnum cotinifolium, Galinsoga parviflora, Rubus occidentalis, Solidago virga-aurea, Arisaema jacquemontii, Rhus succedanea var. himalaica, Juglans regia and Berberis lycium were grouped together. The species of Hedera nepalensis, Elaeagnus umbellate, Impatiens glandulifera and Indigofera heterantha were grouped together. On the other axis the species of Debregeasia saeneb, Quercus dilatata, Artemisia absinthium, Dryopteris ramosa were grouped with each other (Table. 1 and Fig. 26).
Table 1. Data summary table for 114 plant species data matrices that typify ecological community
Axes
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
TI
|
Eigenvalue
|
0.405
|
0.321
|
0.203
|
0.177
|
5.672
|
Length of gradients:
|
3.408
|
3.084
|
2.062
|
2.042
|
|
Cumulative percentage variance of species data:
|
7.1
|
12.8
|
16.4
|
19.5
|
|
3.7) Stations ordinations under the influence of environmental gradient/ Canonical correspondent analysis (CCA)
The Canonical correspondent analysis (CCA) biplot was constructed in relation with climatic, topographic and edaphic factors, demonstrated that the first quadrant was primarily associated with pH and silty nature of soil and it clustered T3Q1E, T2Q2E, T2Q4E, T3Q3E, T21E, T7Q4W, T5Q4E (here T stand for Transect, Q stand for Quadrat, E stand for East Aspect and W stand for West aspect), 2nd quadrant is related with EC, TDS, Clay and moisture contents that clustered T1Q3W, T1Q4W, T5Q3W, T7Q1W, T2Q2W, T7Q3W, T5Q4W, T1Q1W, T6Q5W, 3rd quadrant is associates with Organic matter, slope and Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and it clustered T3Q3W, T3Q2W, T5Q1W, T2Q1W, T4Q1W, T4Q2W, while the fourths quadrant is related with Altitude and sandy nature of soil and it clustered T2Q4W, T7Q5W, T4Q1W, T4Q2E, T2Q3E.
3.8) Species ordinations under the influence of environmental gradients/ Canonical correspondent analysis (CCA):
It has been concluded that all the environmental variables such as Altitude, slope, Aspect and Edaphic variables such as Organic matter, pH, CaCO3, Sand, Silt and Clay contents, soil moisture, EC, TDS are significantly affecting the vegetation characteristics such as species abundance, distribution, and evenness inside the studied area (p ≤ 0.001).
Each border or cross in ordination biplots representing plant species in relation with environmental gradients, and the distance between them shows the differences index. Here in CCA biplot the direction and length of the arrow directed the environmental variables, while the triangle shape clustered indicated clustering of plants species based upon the relationship with environmental variables. The length of the arrow indicated the dimension between different variables and degree of correlation between them. The variables occupying on the same axis shows direct relationship, while those on the opposite direction indicated an inverse relationship.
The various environmental variables assessed were aspects of mountain, altitude of the mountain, Organic matter CaCo3, EC, TDS, pH moisture contents of soil and soil texture. The first quadrant of CCA biplot shows that the plants are primarily associated with pH and silt contents, and it clustered the plants species such as Adiantum emarginatum, Achyranthes aspera, Quercus dilatata, Arisaema flavum, Buxus wallichiana, etc, in quadrant 2nd it has been observed that the plants species are mostly associated with EC, TDS, soil moisture and Clay natured soil. This quadrant clustered the species of Debregeasia saeneb, Quercus baloot, Diospyros lotus, Rubus ulmifolius, Arisaema jacquemontii etc. The species of 3rd quadrant are mostly clustered with Organic matter, calcium carbonate and with slope angle and it clustered the species of Berberis vulgaris, Dryopteris marginalis, Pinus wallichiana, Urtica dioca, Poa annua etc. The 4th Quadrant of the CCA biplot shows the species that are associated with Altitude of the mountain and sandy nature of the soil and the species associated are Viburnum grandiflorum, Abies pindrow, Rhus javanica, Taraxacum officinale, Zanthoxylum armatum etc (see table 2 and Fig. 27).
Table 2. Data summary table of 114 plant species data matrices that typify plants specie data in relation with environmental variables.
Axes
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
TI
|
Eigenvalue
|
0.311
|
0.157
|
0.147
|
0.129
|
5.672
|
Species-environmental correlations:
|
0.917
|
3.823
|
2.832
|
0.836
|
|
Cumulative percentage variance of species data:
|
5.5
|
8.3
|
10.8
|
13.1
|
|
Of species environmental relation:
|
26..3
|
39.5
|
51.9
|
62.8
|
|
Test of significance of first canonical: trace axis: eigenvalue
|
0.311
|
|
|
|
|
F-value
|
2.671
|
|
|
|
|
p-value
|
0.0002
|
|
|
|
|
Test of significance of all canonical axis: trace
|
1.185
|
p-value
|
0.0010
|
|
|
F- ratio
|
1.215
|
|
|
|
|