Stage One: Qualitative study
Thematic analysis of the focus group discussions conducted with 81 participants identified two main themes (a) Reasons for wanting to take part in the trial; (b) Support required for trial to be a success and there were five sub-themes. Table 2 presents an overview of the coding structure.
Our findings from the qualitative analysis and illustrative quotes are presented below with relevant demographic data for participants’ gender (female = F, male = M), profession and village number. The findings are reported in line with the COREQ checklist.
(A) Reasons for wanting to take part in the trial
(i) To be a citizen scientist
Almost half of the participants that attended the first set of focus group discussions (37 out of 81), explained that their main motivation to take part in the study was to gain enough knowledge about the types of mosquitoes that cause harm so that, firstly, they can act to protect themselves, and secondly, with the knowledge gained, they can work towards eradicating the dangerous types of mosquitoes. Responses included, for example, the following:
“…I am interested in findings ways to identify the mosquitoes that are causing us problems in our village. Eventually, I would like to eradicate these dangerous mosquitoes. Doing this, will help us save money, compared to treating malaria…” (F, Farmer, village 4).
“…Taking part in this study will enable me to learn which mosquito species exist in our village and once we are able to identify them, learn how to eradicate these species…” (M, Farmer, village 4).
(ii) To receive feedback on study’s outcomes
About half of the participants (38 out of 81), emphasised the importance of receiving feedback after the trial came to an end. These included: wanting to be recognised or appreciated for participating in the trial and to know whether their contribution would make a positive impact on the study; wanting to receive feedback on whether they had done a good job and wanting feedback so that they could continue working for their communities. However, the most common response (12 out of 38) referred to wanting to receive information on the study’s outcomes so the participant could protect themselves, their families, and their communities against the dangerous species of mosquitoes. Examples of each of these responses are illustrated by the following:
“…I would like to be informed on the study’s results, because this is a new device and, I would like to know how my participation has helped with the study…” (M, Farmer, village 1).
“…I would like to receive feedback from you with regards to how well (or not) we have carried out the tasks for the study…” (F, Farmer, village 1).
“…We want everyone who has participated in this study to be provided with answers so that we can take precautions against these mosquitoes…” (F, Farmer, village 4).
(iii) To receive a mosquito bed net
On the other hand, a couple of participants stated that their main motivation for taking part in the trial was that they were going to receive a mosquito bed net which they were able to keep for themselves and their families. When asked for the reason of their motivation, they stated that a mosquito bed net would protect them from mosquitoes, as illustrated by the following participant:
“…the only thing that would motivate me is to receive a mosquito net…this is because, the mosquito net would protect me from mosquitoes that transmit malaria…” (F, Business owner, village 1).
“…receiving a bed net would motivate me to take part in the study…” (F, Farmer, village 1).
(iv) To receive a monetary incentive (money or airtime credit)
Interestingly, only three (out of 81 people) stated that their main motivation to take part in the trial would be the provision of a monetary incentive. This could either be in the form of money or airtime credit, as illustrated by the three participants below:
“…Yes, we need to be provided with a small amount of money, so that we can purchase some food…” (F, Business owner, village 2).
“…I would be interested in being in the trial group that receives airtime package because currently my life has become very difficult…” (M, Business owner, village 1).
“…An allowance is needed so that it would motivate me to get out of bed...!” (F, Farmer, village 2).
In contrast, six participants stated that they would participate in the trial even if they were not offered any form of monetary incentives. This is because they felt that taking part in the study would go beyond themselves as individuals and instead, benefit the wider community, as beautifully illustrated by the following participants:
“…I will participate in the study, even if I don’t receive an incentive. Maybe I should add one thing. An incentive is a gift. So, even if you don’t receive a gift, you can work because at the end of the day we look at what the purpose of the study is? Often research is done to help the community, so we will do it because it will benefit all community members…” (F, Farmer, village 3).
“…You know, in this study we are not looking at the interest of individuals, but we are looking at the interest of Tanzanians, in general…my happiness will be to represent my fellow Tanzanians…” (M, Farmer, village 3).
(B) Support required for trial to be a success
(i) Money for electricity to charge HumBug sensor, request for solar chargers and
additional mosquito bed nets
When asked what support the participants would require for the trial to be successful, two people stated that they required a small amount of money to charge the HumBug sensors, as they did not want to go out of pocket every time, they needed to charge their sensors. In contrast, seven participants wanted to know whether it was possible to provide their households with a solar panel before the start of the trial so that they could charge their sensors, especially during power outages that frequently take place in their villages, as illustrated by a couple of participants:
“…I have power cuts in my house, so I will need a power bank or solar panel for charging the phone…” (M, Farmer, village 3).
“…We often have power cuts. Sometimes for three days in a row. You can help us with a power bank, which will be a very good thing…” (M, Business owner, village 1).
A couple of participants stated that they required an additional mosquito bed net as a form of support to help them get through the rainy season:
“…I would suggest that we have at least two bed nets, because during the rainy season it is difficult to dry our clothes when we wash them, including our mosquito net…” (F, Business owner, village 3).
“…I would like two mosquito nets because sometimes when it rains, it will be difficult to use one mosquito net…” (F, Farmer, village 4).
Table 2: Description of the coding tree
Main Themes
|
Sub themes
|
1. Reasons for wanting to take part in the trial
|
• To be a citizen scientist.
• To receive feedback on study’s outcomes.
• To receive a mosquito bed net.
• To receive a monetary incentive (money or airtime credit).
|
2. Support required for trial to be a success
|
• Money for electricity to charge HumBug sensor, request for solar chargers and additional mosquito bed nets.
|
Stage Two: Quantitative empirical study
As indicated by Figure 4, during the first few weeks of the trial, most participants across the four trial groups switched on their sensors and uploaded data at least once on the requested dates over the 14-week trial period. However, in weeks 12, 13 and 14, perhaps, as research fatigue set in, the number of uploads across three (out of four) trial groups (‘SMS reminders and monetary incentives’, ‘control’ and ‘SMS reminders only’) started to decline.
Our analysis to ascertain the statistical significance of activity between participants belonging to the control group, compared to those in the three intervention groups (Figure 5) indicated significant differences in switching their HumBug sensors on or off and uploading the data, between the intervention group and the control group. In particular, we found that participation (i.e., recording and uploading mosquito sound data via their HumBug sensors) was significantly worse for all incentive groups on average, compared to the control group. Interestingly, only in the case of ‘monetary incentives only’ trial group was an improved participation apparent, compared to the control group, in the last two weeks of the trial period.
Stage Three: Quantitative feedback survey
When addressing the question “was the amount of monetary incentive provided enough?” responses from 74 participants indicated 65% either ‘agreeing’ or ‘strongly agreeing’ that the amount of was enough (Table 3.1). Questions relating to ease of use of the phone (148 participants) revealed that: the majority (63%) found the Mozzwear application system easy to use (Table 3.2); most of the participants (~86%) would consider uploading the Mozzwear application on to their personal smartphones (if they had one) to collect mosquito sound data (Table 3.3); and that all the participants except one (147) either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to have been treated with courtesy and respect throughout the research period and valued for taking part in the study. Almost all the participants (~99%) either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to receiving feedback on the number of mosquitoes surrounding their homes via a personal smartphone, and similarly, all the participants (148) either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to wanting more information about the biology of mosquitoes (Table 3.4 and Table 3.5).
When the participants were asked what was positive about their research experience, 24% (35 out of 148) participants stated that gaining knowledge on the different types of harmful mosquitoes that are commonly found near their homes; 22% (33 out of 148) participants stated that using technology in research, recording, and sending mosquito sounds via smartphones; 20% (29 out of 148) participants asserted that good cooperation, relationship and trust formed between local researchers and participants; 18% (27 out of 148) asserted that training provided to take part in the research and learning whilst conducting the research were the positive aspects about their research experience.
Finally, when the participants were asked what would have made their research experience better, 25% (37 out of 148) participants asserted that if they were given cash (instead of a scratch card worth $10 of airtime credit), their research experience would have been better. Out of these 37 participants, nine belonged to the ‘SMS reminders and monetary incentives’ and ten belonged to the ‘monetary incentives only’ groups. A small number of participants (four out of 37) that belonged in the ‘SMS reminders and monetary incentives’ group stated that their research experience would have been better if they received an increased amount of airtime credit. Participants belonging to the ‘control’ group (one out of 37) and ‘SMS reminders only’ group (five out of 37), stated that they would have liked to have received some money for their contribution. A smaller proportion of the participants 16% (24 out of 148) stated they would have liked to have kept the HumBug sensors after the trial ended for personal use and 13% (19 out of 148) participants stated that they wanted solar chargers to help them charge their HumBug sensors.
Table 3.1: Statement 1: I feel that the amount of monetary incentive provided was enough
Village name
|
Trial group
|
Number of people
‘Strongly agree’
|
Number of people
‘Agree’
|
Number of people were
‘Not sure’
|
Number of people
‘Disagree’
|
Number of people
‘Strongly disagree’
|
Total
|
Kivukoni
|
SMS reminders and monetary incentives
|
25
|
1
|
0
|
6
|
5
|
37
|
Milola
|
Monetary incentives only
|
8
|
14
|
0
|
13
|
2
|
37
|
Total
|
-
|
33
|
15
|
0
|
19
|
7
|
74
|
Percentage
|
-
|
33/74 *100 = 45%
|
15/74 * 100 = 20%
|
0
|
19/74 *100 = 26%
|
7/74 * 100 = 9.5%
|
100
|
Table 3.1 reveals that 65% of the participants belonging to the ‘SMS reminders and monetary incentives’ and ‘monetary incentives only’ groups, either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to the statement that the amount of monetary incentive provided was enough, and over a third (35.5%) either ‘disagreed’ or ‘strongly disagreed’ to this statement.
Table 3.2: Statement 2: I feel that after recording, sending data using the Mozzwear application was easy
Village name
|
Trial group
|
Number of people
‘Strongly agree’
|
Number of people
‘Agree’
|
Number of people were
‘Not sure’
|
Number of people
‘Disagree’
|
Number of people
‘Strongly disagree’
|
Total
|
Kivukoni
|
SMS reminders and monetary incentives
|
18
|
4
|
1
|
12
|
2
|
37
|
Minepa
|
Control
|
21
|
11
|
0
|
3
|
2
|
37
|
Mavimba
|
SMS reminders only
|
13
|
1
|
0
|
14
|
9
|
37
|
Milola
|
Monetary incentives only
|
12
|
13
|
0
|
11
|
1
|
37
|
Total
|
-
|
64
|
29
|
1
|
40
|
14
|
148
|
Percentage
|
-
|
64/148 *100 = 43%
|
29/148 * 100 = 20%
|
1/148*
100 = 0.68%
|
40/148 *100 = 27%
|
14/148 * 100 = 9.5%
|
100
|
Table 3.2 reveals that 63% of all participants either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to the statement that the Mozzwear application was easy to use, and over a third (36.5%) either ‘disagreed’ or ‘strongly disagreed’ to this statement.
Table 3.3: Statement 3: I would consider uploading the Mozzwear application on to my personal smartphone to collect mosquito sound data
Village name
|
Trial group
|
Number of people
‘Strongly agree’
|
Number of people
‘Agree’
|
Number of people were
‘Not sure’
|
Number of people
‘Disagree’
|
Number of people
‘Strongly disagree’
|
Total
|
Kivukoni
|
SMS reminders and monetary incentives
|
36
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Minepa
|
Control
|
16
|
6
|
12
|
3
|
0
|
37
|
Mavimba
|
SMS reminders only
|
33
|
1
|
0
|
2
|
1
|
37
|
Milola
|
Monetary incentives only
|
24
|
10
|
2
|
0
|
1
|
37
|
Total
|
-
|
109
|
18
|
14
|
5
|
2
|
148
|
Percentage
|
-
|
109/148 *100 = 73.65%
|
18/148 * 100 = 12.16%
|
14/148 * 100 = 9.46%
|
5/148 *100 = 3.38%
|
2/148 * 100 = 1.35%
|
100
|
Table 3.3 shows that most of the participants (~86%) either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to consider uploading the Mozzwear application on to their personal smartphones (if they had one) to collect mosquito sound data.
Table 3.4: Statement 4: I would like to receive feedback on the number of mosquitoes surrounding my home via my personal smartphone
Village name
|
Trial group
|
Number of people
‘Strongly agree’
|
Number of people
‘Agree’
|
Number of people were
‘Not sure’
|
Number of people
‘Disagree’
|
Number of people
‘Strongly disagree’
|
Total
|
Kivukoni
|
SMS reminders and monetary incentives
|
33
|
4
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Minepa
|
Control
|
30
|
6
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
37
|
Mavimba
|
SMS reminders only
|
36
|
0
|
0
|
1
|
0
|
37
|
Milola
|
Monetary incentives only
|
29
|
8
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Total
|
-
|
128
|
18
|
0
|
2
|
0
|
148
|
Percentage
|
-
|
128/148 *100 = 86.49%
|
18/148 * 100 = 12.16%
|
0
|
2/148 *100 = 1.35%
|
0
|
100
|
Table 3.4 reveals that almost all the participants (~99%) either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to receiving feedback on the number of mosquitoes surrounding their homes via a personal smartphone.
Table 3.5: Statement 5: I would like more information about the biology of mosquitoes
Village name
|
Trial group
|
Number of people
‘Strongly agree’
|
Number of people
‘Agree’
|
Number of people were
‘Not sure’
|
Number of people
‘Disagree’
|
Number of people
‘Strongly disagree’
|
Total
|
Kivukoni
|
SMS reminders and monetary incentives
|
36
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Minepa
|
Control
|
32
|
5
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Mavimba
|
SMS reminders only
|
36
|
1
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Milola
|
Monetary incentives
|
37
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
37
|
Total
|
-
|
141
|
7
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
148
|
Percentage
|
-
|
141/148 *100 = 95.27%
|
7/148 * 100 = 4.73%
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
100
|
Table 3.5 reveals that all the participants (100%) either ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ to wanting more information about the biology of mosquitoes.