Awareness And Knowledge of Moonlighting in the Public Service: A Case of Ghana Scholarship Secretariat

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1878110/v1

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Awareness And Knowledge of Moonlighting in the Public Service: A Case of Ghana Scholarship Secretariat

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1878110/v1

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The paper aims to explore the awareness/knowledge, motives, and implications of moonlighting behavior in the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat. A qualitative approach was the primary source of data collection. Data collection was conducted through an in-depth semi-structured interview with key informants who were purposively selected. Field data were transcribed into a written report and analyzed thematically. It emerged from the study public servants are aware and have knowledge of the phenomenon of moonlighting. The study found that income supplement and retirement planning are the main reason why the majority of public servants engage in moonlighting, although few highlighted the negative implication of the practice. The moonlighting policy at the public service was weak and leniently enforced. Moonlighting behavior affects the performance and delivery of public service. The study conclusion is that moonlighting is pervasive at the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat. The interviewees recommended that the Public Service Commission should enact policy actions to regulate moonlighting practices.

Public Administration

Moonlighting

Public Service

Awareness

Ghana Scholarship Secretariat

The phenomenon of moonlighting is pervasive among public sector workers in many countries (Ashmore & Gilson, 2015; Sakyi & Agomor, 2020). In Ghana, the historical antecedent of moonlighting within the public service can be traced to the late 1980s, when Ghana had to embark on fiscal and economic consolidation through a structural adjustment programmed by Britton Woods institutions. The economic recovery programs and reforms embarked in 1983 left adverse implications on the labor market and economy. Some of the major reforms comprise wage restructuring, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and retrenchment of public sector employees. During that challenging and difficult moment, public sector workers who felt the adverse impact of these reforms like privatization and retrenchment sought for secondary jobs or moonlighting activities in other sectors of the economy to supplement their income due to the decline in the income of the new primary job than the previous primary job (Baah-Boateng, Adjei & Oduro, 2013). For example, there is a common practice in Ghana where public employees undertake informal economic activities by marketing their business products and services to colleagues. According to Shishko and Rostker (1976) and Sakyi and Agomor (2020) moonlighting is a situation whereby a public servant keeps his or her primary job and engages in additional jobs or multiple jobs (in terms of formal or informal activities) for pay. Moonlighting in the context of public service is when a public servant undertakes more than one public service jobs in different sectors or outside the public service (Baah-Boateng, Adjei & Oduro, 2013). The concept of moonlighting has assumed several terminologies such as dual role, multiple jobs, extra jobs, second jobs, and additional jobs (Panos, Pouliakas, & Zangelidis, 2011). Various reasons for moonlighting by workers include skill diversification and development, financial constraints, hourly constraints, increase income level, ensure independence, and a high sense of autonomy (Baah-Boateng et al., 2013; Nunoo, Darfor, Koomson & Arthur, 2018; Sakyi & Agomor, 2020).

Moonlighting practices in the public services take varied forms and shapes such as consultants, independent contractors, personal businesses due to the flexibility of the work schedule (Friedman, 2014). Moonlighting behavior has become prevalent in both the public sector or the private sector institutions. However, studies indicate that the public sector workers engage in moonlighting activities more than employees in the private sector (Nunoo et al., 2018). This is partly attributed to effective supervision and monitoring within the private sector space thereby leaving little room for employees to shirk their primary jobs and attend to secondary job roles (Manyika et al., 2016). Panos et al. (2011) reported that moonlighting is prevalent in developing economies such that employees are gradually accepting it as a norm within the public service. Studies have shown that economic pressures concerning the cost of living within the urban areas in Ghana make it difficult for workers to meet personal and family obligations, thereby undertaking informal activities to supplement the income from an existing formal job. Reviewing the economic literature, workers moonlight as a means of overcoming financial constraints, ensuring continuity of employment, accumulation of skills, and compensate themselves for underemployment (Campion, Caza & Moss, 2019). The available statistics indicate that over 30% of Ghanaian workers were engaged in more than one job (GSS, 2014). Besides, Ghana Statistics Service (2014) indicated that employees moonlighting in the public service was 48% and 32% in the private informal sector.

Statement of the problem

Studies regarding moonlighting practices in public service seem to be limited, however, most studies on moonlighting have excessively focus on health professional and higher education institution with a central focus on the drivers, impact, and regulation of the activity (Amde, Sanders, Chilundo, Rugigana, Haile Mariam and Lehmann, 2018; Sakyi & Agomor, 2020). Besides, studies on moonlighting practices in Ghana have focused on employment security, lecturers' experiences in higher education, determinant of moonlighting (Baah-Boateng et al., 2013; Sakyi & Agomor, 2020). Despite several studies on moonlighting practices in Ghana, public service moonlighting has received relatively little or no attention. One is tempted to assert that the public service moonlighting remains an unstudied phenomenon in Ghana. To fill this gap, there several unanswered questions relating to the moonlighting practices in the public service such as awareness and knowledge of moonlighting, socio-demographic characteristics and moonlighting; security of tenure and moonlighting; the drivers for moonlighting in public service; and moonlighting implication on public servant physical wellbeing, colleagues and institutional performance, and quality of service provided. The study seeks to find answers to these interrelated questions empirically using the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat as a case study.

Study objectives

The study objectives seek to:

explore the awareness/knowledge of moonlighting by employees in the public service.
examine the motives behind moonlighting by staff in the public service.
analyze the effects of moonlighting on the performance of the staff in the public service.

Various scholars have defined the concept of moonlighting to mean different things. The term moonlighting is defined as an individual who works more than one job at a time which may involve working for an employer and self-employment or multiple employers where performed tasks are in exchange for compensation. The concept of moonlighting has been connoted in the literature by terms such as multiple job holding, dual practitioner, portfolio worker, plural careerist, hybrid worker, gig economy work (Campion et al., 2020). From the definition, moonlighting is said to have happened when an employee engages in at least two or more distinct but compensated jobs with pay or remuneration simultaneously (Pouliakas, 2017). The concept of moonlighting is noted to be widely engaged in by employees and has attracted various disciplines such as public administration, human resources, psychology, management, sociology, and economics to investigate such phenomenon within the world of work.

Awareness and Perception of moonlighting in public service

The phenomenon of moonlighting is perceived as a common behavior among employees in the public service. The behavior is reportedly influenced by institutional, economic, financial, social, and personal factors. Moonlighting is perceived by public servants as a good practice to supplement the income from their main job in the public service. Katz and Krueger (2019) found that public employees who moonlight have a positive outlook on the practice. In Ghana, most public employees are aware of the pervasiveness of moonlighting practice in the public service and perceive the behavior to be common in the public sector more than the private sector. This is attributable to strict supervision and higher salaries in the private sector which undermines the prevalence of such behavior (Baah-boateng et al., 2013; Owusu, 2001). Further, moonlighting activities were perceived as common among teachers in the public sector due to the availability of overtime opportunities within their formal employment (Baah-boateng et al., 2013; Owusu, 2001). Also, Baah-boateng et al. (2013) reported that doctors are the less likely public servants to engage in moonlighting practices. Although, moonlighting practice is perceived by public employees as having positive implications, it context-specific, therefore, cannot be generalized across all public service.

Drivers of Moonlighting in the Public Service

Moonlighting practice increases the financial prowess of public servants as they get additional income to supplement primary income. Hirsch, Husain, and Winters (2016) found financial reasons as the primary motive for why employees have undertaken multiple jobs to meet their personal and household needs. Amde et al. (2018) reported in the study that poor working conditions, low salaries, and poor incentive structures are the drivers for moonlighting in the public service. Skill diversity and mobility (switching to a new primary job) are the key reasons why employees seek additional jobs (Panos et al., 2014). Dickey et al. (2011) found that employees moonlight for pecuniary and non-pecuniary reasons to increase their financial difficulties or increase their financial commitment in the household. Also, employment security is one of the main motives why public sector employees undertake moonlighting activities (Nunoo et al., 2018). Campion et al. (2020) found that career development, financial motives, and psychological fulfillment are the primary reasons why employees engage in second jobs. Job satisfaction and enrichment not found at the primary job also significantly affects employees' decision to undertake second jobs. Hennekam (2017) also indicated career recognition as one of the reasons why employees undertake multiple jobs outside the primary job. McKenzie (2017) found that employees engage in extra jobs to make a compensatory effect for the sub-optimal experiences in their primary jobs. Other scholars like Averett (2001) found heterogeneous jobs and hourly constraints as some of the drivers to employee moonlighting. Based on the various drivers of moonlighting, the review is inconclusive of the reasons why employees moonlight.

Gender and Moonlighting

Past studies have reported a significant number of males than females engaging in multiple job holdings (Strinson, 1990). However, the relationship between gender and moonlighting over the past 45 years has changed where men are 3 times more likely to moonlight than women (Betts, 2004). The research study is inconclusive on gender differences and moonlighting. According to Betts (2004) males reportedly have a higher frequency) of moonlighting (46.3%) as against females (29.6%). Most studies are silent on the fact that male employees are heads of families and have high financial responsibility than their counterparts females. Studies by Timothy and Nkwama (2017) found that males (62%) are about twice more likely to moonlight than females (35%) in public service. Timothy and Nkwama (2017) further asserted that married men are more likely to moonlight than single men while married women were less likely to engage in moonlighting than single women. Baah-boateng et al. (2013) asserted that married employees are more likely to engage in multiple jobs than unmarried employees. The findings of their study contradict the traditional assumption on marital status and moonlighting behavior. Campion et al. (2020) in their systematic review found limited research evidence to suggests gender differences in moonlighting. Timothy and Nkwama (2017) found in Tanzania that age and sex are the two main factors likely to influence public employees' decision to hold multiple jobs outside their primary job.

Positive and Negative Effect of Moonlighting

Moonlighting as a practice is associated with some merits which make the practice highly practiced globally as well as in Ghana (Katz & Krueger, 2019; Kusi, 2018). Ara and Akbar (2016) found that there is a significant positive impact of moonlighting on job satisfaction. Studies have documented that moonlighting provides an economic endowment to individuals. Abraham and Houseman (2019) found that moonlighting provides liberation to individuals especially minority ethnic groups, the less educated, and those whose general income by supplementing their primary source of income. Similarly, moonlighting has a non-economic positive effect such as psychological fulfillment, skill diversity, and career preparation or development (Panos et al., 2014). Alternatively, moonlighting disrupt efficient service delivery within the public sector. A study by Biglaiser and Albert Ma (2007) found a negative work attitude via minimal health quality service from physicians who moonlight in the public sector. Also, Socha and Bech (2011) found evidence of the negative impact of employees' dual practice on the effectiveness of the public sector delivery such as prolong waiting times, referrals to preferred facilities to maximize utility, and lessen client’s healthcare quality. The negative implication of moonlighting on public servants includes absenteeism, social vices, job dissatisfaction, turnover intentions, and general profitability (Ara & Akbar, 2016; Ashwini, Mirthula & Preetha, 2017; Kusi, 2018).

A qualitative approach was appropriate for the study to explore the public servants' views on the awareness and knowledge of what constitutes moonlighting in public service, drivers of moonlighting, and the implication (positive and negative effects) of moonlighting on the individual public servant and the institution. In that regard, a single case study approach was chosen with a focus on public servants from the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat as the main source of data collection. The main source of data collection was guided by seven in-depth interview questions. Interviewees were asked whether they have heard or had knowledge of moonlighting, whether having a second job is common among public servants, awareness of existing policy on moonlighting, whether they have taken a second job aside from their primary job in the past one year, the benefits of taking a second job, main reasons for taking a second job and positive and negative effect of taking a second job work life and personal life. A purposive sampling method was adopted to select public servants who had in-depth knowledge and understanding of moonlighting behavior or taking a second job outside the primary job. In total, 20 in-depth interviews were conducted between March and April 2022. The sample was composed of 14 management and 6 non-management members; of this 1 was a diploma holder, 11 first degree, and 8 masters degree holders. Female public servants dominated the sample, consisting of 12 out of 20 interviewees. Eighteen (18) out of the twenty (20) interviewees were married, public servants. All the interviewees were conducted on the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat premises in Accra with 20 all interviewees.

Data and field notes were obtained from the field through informal discussion and observation. Field data gathered from public servants during the interviews were later transcribed into a written report to gain an in-depth understanding of the awareness and knowledge, drivers, benefits, and effects of moonlighting behavior on public servant performance in the delivery of public service and the implication on the practice on the institution/employer. The analysis and interpretation of data collection followed the Braun and Clarke (2006) steps of thematic analysis to enable systematic development of codes and themes.

An exploratory study was conducted to understand the reason and condition of public service that drives public servants into moonlighting and the implication on them and the institution. For a systematic analysis, the coding entailed all 20 interview transcripts. Further, similar words and phrases related to the research objectives were isolated such as awareness and knowledge of moonlighting, drivers of moonlighting, and positive and negative implications of moonlighting. While inductive themes were generated from the qualitative field data, deductive themes were obtained by organizing field interviews and secondary data in a thematic analysis procedure (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Patton, 2002). Also, the library and other secondary sources of data that could provide information on public service moonlighting were consulted. Generally, the themes generated reflected the research questions asked. Afterward, these words and phrases were categorized into themes based on the research questions. Inform consent of all interviewees who took part in the study were sought before using the information provided. Anonymity and confidentiality of interviewees were ensured to prevent the fear of third party accessing information provided or targeting institutions. Majority of the interviewees, especially those in management roles advise that the researcher should use the term “R” or “Respondent” for anonymity purposes rather than mentioning interviewees' actual names in the report.

This section presents the study findings gathered based on the information gathered from the interviewees. The presentation of the study findings is according to the themes created from the interviews. The first section presents the socio-demographic data on the participants. Followed by major thematic areas.

Socio-demographics Characteristics

Background characteristics Frequency Percent (%)

(n=20)

Age

20-30 3 15%

31-40 4 20%

41-50 7 35%

51-60 6 30%

Gender

Male 8 40%

Female 12 80%

Marital Status

Married 18 90%

Single 2 10%

Level of Education

Diploma 1 5%

First Degree 11 55%

Masters 8 40%

Job Position/Rank

Management role 14 70%

Non-management role 6 30%

Number of Years in Organization

1-5 4 20%

6-10 6 30%

11-15 10 50%

Source: Field Data, 2022.

Awareness and Knowledge of Moonlighting Behaviour

The study sort to find out the awareness of moonlighting practices among public service employees. All the participants were aware and knew what constitutes moonlighting. The general opinion emerging from the study is that moonlighting is illegal in public service despite the commonness of such practices undertaken by public servants. Some of the definitions provided by respondents on what they know about moonlighting include:

Moonlighting is having a second job aside from your public service job (Interview with Respondent 2 on March 2022).

Moonlighting means having addition job other than what you are formally employed to do (Interview with Respondent 8 on March 2022).

When respondents were asked about other descriptive terminologies used for moonlighting behavior in the public sector, one interviewee said:

Moonlighting is having more jobs, additional jobs, part-time jobs, second job, “galamsey” (Interview with Respondent 10 on March 2022).

Regarding the prevalence of moonlighting in public service, the majority of respondents, 18 out of 20, said there is a high prevalence of moonlighting behavior in public service. The moonlighting practice was common among management staff than non-management staff. A respondent made the following statement:

Moonlighting is common among public service employees. Having a second job which is mostly informal activity in addition to the main public service job from 8am to 5pm and on weekends (Interview with Respondent 14 on April 2022).

When further asked what are the forms of moonlighting activities undertaken by public servants, most participants indicated that:

We take part-time teaching jobs, sales job, fabric and garments sales, assorted products and consultancy jobs. These jobs are mostly done on weekends and after official working time to chiefly obtain more money to supplement their earnings from the formal public service roles (Interview with Respondent 5 on March 2022).

Responding to the question of whether respondents have taken a second job (formal or informal) aside from the primary job for the past year, majority of the respondents, 18 out of 20, affirmed that they have undertaken multiple jobs or moonlighting activities.

Motives behind Moonlighting in Public Service

The study sought to find out the reasons why public servants take up extra jobs. Majority of the interviewees gave varied reasons why they undertake multiple jobs outside their primary job. The general opinion was that public servants hold multiple jobs or moonlighting activities for financial reasons or incentives. One respondent reported that:

Our main aim for taking additional jobs is to get a further financial resource to complement their earnings from the public service job (Interview with Respondent 18 on April 2022).

Moonlighting brings you extra income to support you (Interview with Respondent 13 on March 2022).

On the reasons for moonlighting, some public servants mentioned household needs. Following the response of an interviewee:

The money you obtain in the second job will support you in taking care of your children as a public service salary is not enough to take good care of your family (Interview with Respondent 9 on March 2022).

Another respondent said:

Moonlighting is very good as it earns you additional income and improves our cash flow (Interview with Respondent 4 on March 2022).

Respondents were asked whether the salary paid by the public service is not enough to cater for their basic, while the majority of the respondents said in affirmation, some of the interviewees said that human beings have insatiable needs that they must meet. A respondent noted:

Moonlighting practices are chiefly to get an additional financial resource to supplement the insufficient salary from primary job to meet the high standard of life and cost of living in urban areas (Interview with Respondent 7 on March 2022).

Learning New Skills

When participants were asked about the implication of moonlighting on their career development, the general opinion was that moonlighting enables employees to learn new skills to take on different opportunities. An interviewee reported that:

Moonlighting helps us to learn and develop new skills. Additional jobs provide us with the opportunities to learn a new set of skills such as bargaining skills, communication skills, and engagement (Interview with Respondent 1 on March 2022).

Some of the respondents said that the part-time jobs or moonlighting activities enable them to practice a new set of skills which their primary jobs do not allow. A respondent succinctly reported:

…I am a Chartered Accountant (CA) and I do consultancy jobs for businesses; this is very engaging and makes me practice effectively as I do not highly practice it here. This is because we already have auditors who have been employed separately to do that here (Interview with Respondent 3 on March 2022).

Retirement Planning

When respondents were asked, aside from financial reasons, what are the other motives for taking up moonlighting activities, the general opinion of the respondent was that it prepares them for retirement and post-retirement. A 57years old respondent who has been engaging in wholesale water business reported:

…I took the additional job partly so that when I go on retirement, I can have something to hold on. Eeerm..when you go on retirement and you have an additional job, you can continue to earn income from there (Interview with Respondent 20 on April 2022).

Effects of Moonlighting on public service performance

The study sought to examine the effects of moonlighting behaviour on the performance of public service employees. The general opinion emerging from the data was that moonlighting has both positive and negative effects on employees’ performance, although the positive effect was more than the negative effect. This provides empirical support to the depletion-enrichment framework by Goode (1990) which states that a phenomenon can have both positive and negative outcomes based on the scenarios. A respondent indicated:

To a large extent that having multiple job roles enables the effective transfer of skills, knowledge, and other abilities from the part-time job activities unto the primary role (Interview with Respondent 11 on March 2022).

Another respondent stated:

Moonlighting practices they engage in makes them focus on performing their job roles with minimal concerns for money as the other part-time jobs will complement (Interview with Respondent 18 on March 2022).

Regarding the question of whether moonlighting activities should be strictly or leniently enforced, participants of the interview reported that a caveat should be placed on time undertaken moonlighting activities. An interviewee unequivocally said:

The second job should not be done during the allotted time for the primary job to prevent conflicting role demands between the additional jobs and the primary job. With such instance, performance will be negatively affected (Interview with Respondent 9 on March 2022).

The study contributes to the existing literature on moonlighting practices regarding public service. The multifaceted nature of the phenomenon of moonlighting in the public service has been explored. Moonlighting in the public service has complex drivers, raises an argument with regards to the implication of moonlighting on public servants as well as raises a crucial concern about the institutional capability to regulate the practice. The study findings reveal that moonlighting is a common and known phenomenon among public servants at the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat. The study highlights the varied reasons for moonlighting practice using the experiences of the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat case study. The study was conducted at the offices of interviewees at the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat to better understand the pervasiveness of the behavior across the entire Ghanaian public service. The Ghanaian public service, including Ghana Scholarship Secretariat, has been facing low salaries and poor employee motivation. This condition of service at the public service has offered public servants the opportunity to acquire an additional jobs in addition to their primary job. There are a varied perception and knowledge regarding the forms of moonlighting practices among public employees such as part-time teaching jobs, sales jobs, fabric and garments sales, assorted products, and consultancy jobs. The study found that moonlighting jobs are mostly done on weekends and after official working time to chiefly obtain more money to supplement their earnings from the formal public service roles. Additionally, public servants outlined some of the benefits of moonlighting as career advancement, learning new skills, retirement planning, financial supplement, and social network.

The study finding corroborates Campion et al. (2020) definition of moonlighting to mean employees simultaneously engaging in at least two or more distinct but compensated jobs with pay or remuneration. The findings of the study are in line with Pouliakas (2017) that moonlighting behavior is widely engaged in by employees in the public service. The study findings support Katz and Krueger (2019) work that employees who moonlight have a positive outlook for the practice. The findings further affirm the works of Husain and Winters (2016) that moonlighting behavior provides financial resources to supplement the primary earnings from the public service. The study finding revealed that public servants moonlight to meet their financial obligations. This is supported by Nunoo et al. (2018) who found that public servants moonlight to gain additional income. Besides, moonlighting is seen by public servants as a refreshing time from daily public routine. The study revealed that new skills learned from the moonlighting practices are transferred to the primary job which promotes effective and efficient delivery of public service. This finding supports the conclusion by McKenzie (2017) that multiple jobs promote complementary effect in skills learning and development to achieve optimal experiences in primary jobs. One of the significant findings of the study is the disclosure that public servants engage in moonlight behavior to provide them a form of employment and income during retirement. This is because the Public Service Act mandates public servants to compulsory retire at age 60. Moonlighting was seen by public servants as a preparation process to build experience and knowledge to move from their primary job into their new job after retirement. Finding corroborate Nunoo et al. (2018) study that moonlighting is practiced by public employees for precautionary reasons including when they suffer from redundancy, job termination, ill health, and retirement.

The study sought to explore the public servants' views on the awareness and knowledge of what constitutes moonlighting in public service, drivers of moonlighting, positive and negative implications of moonlighting on the public servant, and the institution. It emerged that moonlighting is a common practice at Ghana Scholarship Secretariat. It is a multifaceted practice that is perceived by public servants as a retirement strategy because Public Service Act mandates them to retire at age 60. The drivers of public service moonlighting varied although multifaceted and interlinked with the public servants' socio-demographic, economic, and cultural background. There is numerous implications of moonlighting on the wellbeing of employees, quality of public service delivery, and institution in general. The study is inconclusive on the nature and impact of moonlighting behavior on public servants and institutions. Moonlighting behavior is encouraged in the public service environment of the Ghana Scholarship Secretariat. However, the negative implication of moonlighting on the public servant, moonlighting on quality of service and institution should not be taken for granted. The interviewees recommended the following policy actions to the Public Service Commission to regulate moonlighting practices. The Public Service Commission should enact a moonlighting policy to mitigate the negative implication on employee performance in their primary roles. There is a need for open and pragmatic discussion between public servants and the Public Service Commission to manage the menace of moonlighting behavior.

Statements and Declarations Funding:

This study did not receive any external financial support.

Declarations Competing interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests with respect to the research.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank all the participants who devoted their time and energy to participating in the experiment.

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Awareness And Knowledge of Moonlighting in the Public Service: A Case of Ghana Scholarship Secretariat

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Abstract

Introduction

Review of Literature on moonlighting in the public service

Methodology and data collection procedure

The Study Results

Discussion of Findings

Conclusion and policy recommendation

Declarations

References

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