Table 1 shows descriptive statistics. Table 2 provides a cross-tabulation analysis for the male sample between health status and average time spent on the following activities: sleep, personal care, market, non-market, and leisure. The results suggest a negative relationship between health and sleep and leisure hours, implying that males with poor health spend more time on these activities. On the other hand, the results show a positive relationship between health status and hours on personal care, market, and non-market hours suggesting that males with poor health spend less time on these activities. Table 3 provides a similar cross-tabulation analysis for the female sample. The results are also similar to the findings from the male sample.
Table 2
Average time use by health status (male sample)
|
Sleep Hours
|
Personal Care Hours
|
Market Hours
|
Non-Market Hours
|
Leisure
|
Excellent Health
|
509.45
|
114.21
|
305.89
|
160.67
|
312.55
|
Very Good Health
|
510.62
|
115.12
|
297.89
|
166.74
|
312.29
|
Good Health
|
511.85
|
112.29
|
297.3786
|
158.49
|
323.81
|
Fair Health
|
531.51
|
111.85
|
246.95
|
155.54
|
362.76
|
Poor Health
|
556.46
|
109.02
|
169.04
|
159.37
|
413.60
|
Source: General Social Survey-Time Use (2015) |
Table 3
Average time use by health status (female sample)
|
Sleep Hours
|
Personal Care Hours
|
Market Hours
|
Non-Market Hours
|
Leisure
|
Excellent Health
|
514.70
|
130.045
|
228.53
|
234.43
|
302.47
|
Very Good Health
|
521.15
|
128.90
|
230.15
|
226.89
|
302.03
|
Good Health
|
527.14
|
127.20
|
221.72
|
223.71
|
304.04
|
Fair Health
|
542.76
|
127.63
|
171.62
|
230.10
|
335.77
|
Poor Health
|
578.47
|
121.24
|
95.68
|
221.06
|
385.96
|
Source: General Social Survey-Time Use (2015) |
The cross-tabulation analyses do not include many factors influencing time use patterns, such as age, education, marital status, having a child at home etc. The Seemingly Unrelated Regression framework included these factors, and the results of SUR regression are given below.
Table 4 shows the results of the SUR regression for the male sample. The results suggest that poor physical health and fair physical health correlate positively with sleep hours and leisure while they are negatively associated with market work hours. On the other hand, physical health has no significant relationship with non-market hours and time spent on personal care. The SUR regression results for the female sample are shown in Table 5. The results suggest that poor health correlates positively with time spent on sleep and leisure while it is negatively related to time spent on market work. The results also show that fair health significantly increases sleep time while it significantly reduces market hours. The results further suggest that physical health has no significant relationship with time spent on personal care or non-market activities.
Table 4
Seeming Unrelated Regression- Self reported Physical Health (Male sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor Health
|
45.16***
(9.57)
|
-8.91
(6.02)
|
-137.02***
(19.89)
|
-8.09
(12.12)
|
98.61***
(15.76)
|
Fair Health
|
24.79***
(6.50)
|
-2.40
(4.09)
|
-50.59***
(13.52)
|
-12.69
(8.23)
|
36.87*** (10.71)
|
Good Health
|
1.35
(5.27)
|
− .88
(3.32)
|
− .62
(10.97)
|
-10.11
(6.68)
|
1.80
(8.69)
|
Very Good Health
|
3.56
(5.17)
|
− .85
(3.25)
|
-2.84 (
10.75)
|
-5.03
(6.55)
|
-3.11
(8.52)
|
Age 25–44
|
-47.34***
(7.32)
|
-5.43
(4.61)
|
191.35***
(15.23)
|
47.15***
(9.28)
|
-45.52*** (12.06)
|
Age 45–64
|
-39.73*** (7.32)
|
6.61
(4.61)
|
100.51***
(15.23)
|
69.37***
(9.27)
|
13.33 (12.07)
|
Age 64 over
|
1.39
(7.84)
|
35.74***
(4.93)
|
-170.93*** (16.30)
|
118.30***
(9.93)
|
165.52*** (12.91)
|
Married
|
-12.79*** (4.35)
|
5.37**
(2.73)
|
28.73***
(9.04)
|
26.30***
(5.50)
|
-48.91***
(7.16)
|
Widow/Separated/ Divorced
|
-1.94
(6.02)
|
.37
(3.79)
|
-11.02
(12.52)
|
14.52*
(7.62)
|
-7.94
(9.92)
|
Newfoundland
|
13.80* (8.28)
|
20.03***
(5.21)
|
-94.05***
(17.21)
|
41.81***
(10.48)
|
18.54 (13.63)
|
PEI
|
14.74 (11.60)
|
-4.63
(7.30)
|
-50.13**
(24.13)
|
-9.19
(14.70)
|
32.31* (19.12)
|
Nova Scotia
|
-13.53*
(7.75)
|
15.90***
(4.88)
|
-17.92
(16.12)
|
7.36
(9.82)
|
15.01 (12.77)
|
New Brunswick
|
-4.10
(7.83)
|
13.88***
(4.92)
|
-25.76
(16.27)
|
.41
(9.91)
|
19.50 (12.89)
|
Quebec
|
12.94*
(5.02)
|
20.71***
(3.16)
|
-26.10**
(10.45)
|
.343
(6.36)
|
-8.47
(8.28)
|
Manitoba
|
-3.10
(7.86)
|
6.75
(4.95)
|
6.36
(16.35)
|
-2.94
(9.96)
|
-4.19
(12.95)
|
Saskatchewan
|
.734
(8.21)
|
11.07**
(5.17)
|
24.68
(17.07)
|
-3.40
(10.40)
|
-17.65 (13.52)
|
Alberta
|
6.75
(6.57)
|
10.34**
(4.13)
|
7.67
(13.66)
|
3.50
(8.32)
|
-16.83 (10.82)
|
BC
|
15.44***
(5.95)
|
11.58***
(3.74)
|
-36.02***
(12.37)
|
13.12*
(7.54)
|
.29
(9.80)
|
Rural Area
|
5.96
(4.47)
|
-2.46
(2.81)
|
-4.16
(9.29)
|
23.55***
(5.66)
|
-19.68*
(7.36)
|
High School Diploma
|
-14.86** (5.90)
|
5.20
(3.71)
|
54.90***
(12.26)
|
-11.10
(7.47)
|
-12.45
(9.71)
|
Trade Certificate
|
-8.48
(6.27)
|
.91
(3.94)
|
76.41***
(13.03)
|
6.48
(7.94)
|
-48.6***
(10.32)
|
College
|
-19.61***
(6.22)
|
6.40
(3.91)
|
81.73***
(12.93)
|
9.79
(7.87)
|
-45.69*** (10.24)
|
University Certificate/ Diploma
|
-21.83**
(10.42)
|
9.59
(6.56)
|
67.48***
(21.66)
|
8.27
(13.20)
|
-39.03** (17.16)
|
Bachelor's degree
|
-19.79***
(6.36)
|
12.90***
(4.00)
|
82.36***
(13.23)
|
-13.10
(8.06)
|
-42.75*** (10.48)
|
University Post Bachelor
|
-15.98**
(7.30)
|
11.71**
(4.59)
|
86.51***
(15.17)
|
-12.43
(9.24)
|
-49.19*** (12.02)
|
Immigrant
|
5.85
(4.72)
|
2.74
(2.98)
|
22.13**
(9.82)
|
-10.51*
(5.98)
|
-30.41***
(7.78)
|
Having Child aged 4 and below
|
-2.71
(7.09)
|
-3.47
(4.46)
|
4.18
(14.74)
|
66.58***
(8.98)
|
-54.80***
(11.67)
|
Constant
|
535.09***
(8.36)
|
83.23***
(5.26)
|
243.85***
(17.379)
|
59.15***
(10.59)
|
331.30***
(13.77)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Table 5
Seeming Unrelated Regression-Self Reported Physical Health (Female sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor Health
|
66.92***
(8.87)
|
-4.38
(5.81)
|
-116.65***
(16.27)
|
-2.75
(12.24)
|
54.25***
(12.92)
|
Fair Health
|
19.96*** (6.03)
|
-3.18
(3.95)
|
-30.71***
(11.07)
|
1.39
(8.33)
|
9.59
(8.79)
|
Good Health
|
9.81**
(4.78)
|
-1.60
(3.13)
|
6.78
(8.76)
|
3.78
(6.59)
|
-11.40
(6.96)
|
Very Good Health
|
2.07
(4.65)
|
.093
(3.05)
|
14.19*
(8.54)
|
-5.91
(6.42)
|
-9.58
(6.78)
|
Age 25–44
|
-27.30***
(7.28)
|
-4.79
(4.77)
|
130.22***
(13.36)
|
76.12***
(10.05)
|
-23.89** (10.61)
|
Age 45–64
|
-24.19***
(7.26)
|
5.79
(4.76)
|
59.86***
(13.32)
|
81.13***
(10.02)
|
47.67*** (10.58)
|
Age 64 over
|
3.84
(7.53)
|
31.08***
(4.93)
|
-155.34*** (13.81)
|
120.59***
(10.39)
|
168.72*** (10.97)
|
Married
|
-7.44*
(4.11)
|
3.40
(2.69)
|
-34.11***
(7.54)
|
66.05***
(5.67)
|
-21.91***
(5.99)
|
Widow/Separated/ Divorced
|
-11.50** (4.85)
|
-1.29
(3.178)
|
-20.09**
(8.89)
|
26.40***
(6.69)
|
2.01*
(7.06)
|
Newfoundland
|
-3.27 (7.31)
|
− .089
(4.79)
|
-14.70
(13.41)
|
28.98***
(10.09)
|
-8.696 (10.65)
|
PEI
|
.46
(9.70)
|
.72
(6.36)
|
-20.23
(17.80)
|
-24.37*
(13.39)
|
45.67***
(14.14)
|
Nova Scotia
|
-15.29**
(7.07)
|
7.33
(4.64)
|
23.02*
(12.97)
|
-9.73
(9.76)
|
-9.69
(10.31)
|
New Brunswick
|
6.60
(6.88)
|
4.45
(4.50)
|
-22.183* (12.61)
|
-5.31
(9.49)
|
20.00**
(10.02)
|
Quebec
|
1.40
(4.60)
|
18.45***
(3.01)
|
-6.50
(8.43)
|
-3.89
(6.35)
|
-8.65
(6.70)
|
Manitoba
|
17.97** (7.15)
|
-1.49
(4.69)
|
-20.81
(13.12)
|
4.29
(9.88)
|
.36
(10.42)
|
Saskatchewan
|
17.36**
(7.35)
|
2.36
(4.82)
|
-7.51
(13.49)
|
9.91
(10.15)
|
-16.41 (10.71)
|
Alberta
|
.52
(6.29)
|
8.93**
(4.12)
|
11.21
(11.54)
|
.72
(8.69)
|
-17.50
(9.17)
|
BC
|
9.22*
(5.45)
|
12.35***
(3.56)
|
-10.08
(9.95)
|
-6.13
(7.49)
|
2.57
(7.91)
|
Rural Area
|
.397
(4.09)
|
2.96
(2.65)
|
-13.78*
(7.43)
|
30.92***
(5.59)
|
-17.62***
(5.90)
|
High School Diploma
|
-15.52*** (5.51)
|
2.69
(3.61)
|
38.71***
(10.10)
|
.89
(7.60)
|
-17.63**
(8.02)
|
Trade Certificate
|
-22.13*** (6.85)
|
.29
(4.49)
|
62.02***
(12.57)
|
− .07
(9.46)
|
-20.86**
(9.98)
|
College
|
-26.94***
(5.46)
|
6.31*
(3.58)
|
76.71***
(10.01)
|
5.56
(7.54)
|
-37.25***
(7.95)
|
University Certificate/ Diploma
|
-45.20***
(8.44)
|
5.10
(5.53)
|
82.47***
(15.49)
|
9.79
(11.66)
|
-32.45***
(12.30)
|
Bachelor's degree
|
-34.06*** (5.89)
|
12.12***
(3.86)
|
99.92***
(10.81)
|
-20.44**
(8.13)
|
-37.11***
(8.58)
|
University Post Bachelor
|
-46.86*** (7.16)
|
8.96*
(4.70)
|
121.66***
(13.14)
|
-30.12***
(9.89)
|
-39.36*** (10.44)
|
Immigrant
|
− .32
(4.3)
|
.06
(2.85)
|
9.02
(7.98)
|
8.62
(6.00)
|
-27.12***
(6.34)
|
Having Child aged 4 and below
|
-3.34
(6.49)
|
-7.90*
(4.25)
|
-105.39*** (11.90)
|
168.07***
(8.96)
|
-30.2***
(9.45)
|
Constant
|
551.78*** (8.40)
|
101.31***
(5.50)
|
214.58***
(15.40)
|
84.93***
(11.59)
|
276.85*** (12.23)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Other Specifications:
Impact of Disability and Mental Health:
Disability is also a measure of physical health. Using the SUR method, the study also examines the relationship between disability and time spent on sleep, personal care, market work, non-market work, and leisure. As shown in Table 6, the male sample suggests that disability positively correlates with time spent on sleep, non-market activities, and leisure while it is negatively related to market hours. The results of the female sample, as shown in Table 7, show that disability significantly reduces market hours while it significantly increases time spent on sleep and leisure.
Table 6
Seeming Unrelated Regression- Self-reported Disability (Male sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Disabled
|
15.84*** (3.71)
|
-1.20
(2.33)
|
-73.65***
(7.67)
|
13.99***
(4.68)
|
39.57***
(6.10)
|
Age 25–44
|
-45.61***
(7.32)
|
-5.78
(4.60)
|
188.84***
(15.15)
|
44.89***
(9.24)
|
-42.22*** (12.05)
|
Age 45–64
|
-38.38*** (7.32)
|
6.23
(4.60)
|
101.37***
(15.16)
|
65.94***
(9.25)
|
15.46 (12.06)
|
Age 64 over
|
2.84
(7.84)
|
35.34***
(4.92)
|
-169.06*** (16.23)
|
114.13***
(9.90)
|
167.48*** (12.91)
|
Married
|
-12.94*** (4.35)
|
5.42**
(2.73)
|
28.32***
(9.00)
|
27.03***
(5.49)
|
-49.41***
(7.17)
|
Widow/Separated/ Divorced
|
-1.71
(6.03)
|
.24
(3.79)
|
-10.90
(12.49)
|
13.996*
(7.62)
|
-7.54
(9.93)
|
Newfoundland
|
14.33* (8.29)
|
19.88***
(5.21)
|
-95.91***
(17.16)
|
41.93***
(10.47)
|
19.62 (13.65)
|
PEI
|
13.13 (11.64)
|
-4.54
(7.31)
|
-41.53*
(24.09)
|
-11.38
(14.70)
|
27.54 (19.17)
|
Nova Scotia
|
-13.74*
(7.77)
|
15.96***
(4.88)
|
-14.82
(16.08)
|
6.69
(9.81)
|
13.09 (12.79)
|
New Brunswick
|
-3.50
(7.84)
|
13.72***
(4.93)
|
-23.83
(16.24)
|
-1.68
(9.91)
|
19.58 (12.92)
|
Quebec
|
12.08** (5.03)
|
20.88***
(3.16)
|
-24.11**
(10.41)
|
.89
(6.35)
|
-10.09
(8.28)
|
Manitoba
|
-2.79
(7.88)
|
6.68**
(4.95)
|
6.09
(16.31)
|
-3.64
(9.95)
|
-3.62
(12.97)
|
Saskatchewan
|
.90
(8.23)
|
11.05***
(5.17)
|
25.94
(17.03)
|
-3.90
(10.39)
|
-18.195 (13.55)
|
Alberta
|
6.98
(6.58)
|
10.29
(4.13)
|
8.48
(13.63)
|
2.83
(8.31)
|
-17.08 (10.84)
|
BC
|
15.31*** (5.96)
|
11.52
(3.74)
|
-35.27***
(12.34)
|
12.73*
(7.53)
|
− .13
(9.82)
|
Rural Area
|
6.34
(4.47)
|
-2.49
(2.81)
|
-5.402
(9.26)
|
23.65***
(5.65)
|
-18.68**
(7.37)
|
High School Diploma
|
-15.70****
(5.91)
|
5.29
(3.71)
|
56.15***
(12.23)
|
-10.51
(7.46)
|
-13.51
(9.73)
|
Trade Certificate
|
-9.92
(6.27)
|
1.11
(3.94)
|
79.64***
(12.99)
|
7.11
(7.93)
|
-51.17*** (10.33)
|
College
|
-21.54**** (6.22)
|
6.66*
(3.91)
|
86.03***
(12.88)
|
10.74
(7.86)
|
-49.12***
(10.24)
|
University Certificate/ Diploma
|
-24.06** (10.43)
|
9.94
(6.55)
|
71.61***
(21.59)
|
9.98
(13.17)
|
-42.93** (17.18)
|
Bachelor's degree
|
-21.84*** (6.34)
|
13.25***
(3.98)
|
84.55***
(13.14)
|
-10.52
(8.01)
|
-45.65*** (10.44)
|
University Post Bachelor
|
-17.72** (7.28)
|
12.06***
(4.57)
|
87.49***
(15.07)
|
-9.34
(9.19)
|
-51.55***
(11.98)
|
Immigrant
|
6.55 (4.73)
|
2.64
(2.97)
|
19.53**
(9.79)
|
-10.76*
(5.97)
|
-28.45***
(7.78)
|
Having Child aged 4 and below
|
-2.22
(7.10)
|
-3.49
(4.46)
|
.189
(14.71)
|
67.43***
(8.97)
|
-52.91*** (11.70)
|
Constant
|
536.62*** (7.45)
|
82.52***
(4.68)
|
252.14***
(15.43)
|
49.42***
(9.41)
|
326.73***
(12.27)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Table 7
Seeming Unrelated Regression- Self-reported Disability (Female sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Disabled
|
14.50***
(3.23)
|
1.43
(2.11)
|
-43.65***
(5.92)
|
6.58
(4.44)
|
17.98***
(4.70)
|
Age 25–44
|
-26.31*** (7.31)
|
-5.21
(4.77)
|
130.15***
(13.39)
|
75.61***
(10.05)
|
-23.78** (10.63)
|
Age 45–54
|
-22.41*** (7.29)
|
5.11
(4.76)
|
58.73***
(13.36)
|
80.45***
(10.03)
|
48.55*** (10.60)
|
Age 55–64
|
4.54
(7.56)
|
30.55***
(4.94)
|
-154.66*** (13.86)
|
119.94***
(10.40)
|
168.71*** (10.996)
|
Married
|
-7.76*
(4.13)
|
3.71
(2.69)
|
-35.48***
(7.56)
|
66.51***
(5.67)
|
-21.12*** (5.999)
|
Widow/Separated/ Divorced
|
-10.21**
(4.86)
|
-1.35
(3.17)
|
-23.47***
(8.91)
|
26.62***
(6.69)
|
13.83**
(7.07)
|
Newfoundland
|
-3.49
(7.33)
|
− .055
(4.79)
|
-14.17
(13.43)
|
28.70***
(10.08)
|
-8.71
(10.66)
|
PEI
|
.19
(9.74)
|
.90
(6.36)
|
-20.83
(17.84)
|
-24.12*
(13.39)
|
46.07*** (14.16)
|
Nova Scotia
|
-15.16** (7.10)
|
7.29
(4.63)
|
23.58*
(13.00)
|
-10.28
(9.76)
|
-9.60
(10.32)
|
New Brunswick
|
7.60
(6.90)
|
4.43
(4.51)
|
-24.69*
(12.65)
|
-5.09
(9.49)
|
21.17**
(10.03)
|
Quebec
|
.73
(4.61)
|
18.65***
(3.01)
|
-6.27
(8.45)
|
-3.62
(6.34)
|
-8.68
(6.70)
|
Manitoba
|
19.16**
(7.17)
|
-1.61
(4.69)
|
-23.01*
(13.15)
|
4.11
(9.87)
|
1.63
(10.43)
|
Saskatchewan
|
17.29
(7.38)
|
2.21
(4.82)
|
-6.41
(13.52)
|
9.54
(10.15)
|
-16.79 (10.73)
|
Alberta
|
.60
(6.31)
|
9.06**
(4.12)
|
10.28
(11.57)
|
.74
(8.68)
|
-16.82*
(9.18)
|
BC
|
8.75
(5.44)
|
12.38***
(3.55)
|
-9.18
(9.97)
|
-6.40
(7.49)
|
2.50
(7.91)
|
Rural Area
|
.36
(94.06)
|
2.98
(2.65)
|
-13.51*
(7.45)
|
30.93***
(5.59)
|
-17.91***
(5.91)
|
High School Diploma
|
17.59*** (5.52)
|
3.13
(3.60)
|
41.15***
(10.11
|
1.13
(7.59)
|
-18.68**
(8.02)
|
Trade Certificate
|
-25.06***
(6.86)
|
.64
(4.48)
|
67.20***
(12.57)
|
− .0091
(9.44)
|
-23.38**
(9.98)
|
College
|
-30.35*** (5.45)
|
6.92*
(3.56)
|
81.37**8
(9.99)
|
5.76
(7.50)
|
-39.15***
(7.92)
|
University Certificate/ Diploma
|
-49.02*** (8.46)
|
5.64
(5.52)
|
87.75***
(15.49)
|
10.25
(11.63)
|
-34.81*** (12.29)
|
Bachelor's degree
|
-38.07*** (5.87)
|
12.99***
(3.83)
|
104.00***
(10.76)
|
-19.83**
(8.08)
|
-38.60***
(8.54)
|
University Post Bachelor
|
-50.53***
(7.16)
|
9.97**
(4.68)
|
123.96***
(13.12)
|
-29.15***
(9.85)
|
-40.05*** (10.41)
|
Immigrant
|
1.64
(4.36)
|
− .069
(2.85)
|
5.71
(7.99)
|
8.95
(5.995)
|
-26.23***
(6.34)
|
Having Child aged 4 and below
|
-2.92
(6.56)
|
-7.64*
(4.25)
|
-108.20*** (11.94)
|
168.68***
(8.96)
|
-28.86***
(9.47)
|
Constant
|
556.16*** (7.61)
|
99.54***
(4.97)
|
230.00***
(13.95)
|
78.98***
(10.47)
|
265.73*** (11.07)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
The association between mental health and time use for males and females is shown in Tables 8 and 9, respectively. For the male sample, poor mental health correlates positively with time spent on sleep and leisure while it is negatively associated with time spent in personal care and market work. Poor mental health positively affects the female's sleep and leisure while it has a negative relationship with market hours.
Table 8
Seeming Unrelated Regression- Self-reported Mental Health (Male sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor Mental Health
|
40.76***
(13.46)
|
-24.58***
(8.45)
|
-146.38***
(28.02)
|
8.40
(17.02)
|
126.21***
(22.17)
|
Fair Mental Health
|
21.57 (7.05)
|
-8.15**
(4.42)
|
-54.68***
(14.67)
|
-3.22
(8.91)
|
34.67*** (11.60)
|
Good Mental Health
|
7.39
(4.66)
|
-4.14
(2.92)
|
-13.79
(9.70)
|
6.88
(5.89)
|
-4.61
(7.67)
|
Very Good Mental Health
|
− .400
(4.44)
|
-1.74
(2.78)
|
-2.65
(9.24)
|
7.00
(5.61)
|
-3.05
(7.31)
|
Age 25–44
|
-45.78*** (7.32)
|
-5.32
(4.59)
|
186.75***
(15.23
|
45.63***
(9.25)
|
-40.74*** (12.05)
|
Age 45–64
|
-36.87***
(7.31)
|
6.47
(4.59)
|
92.24***
(15.21)
|
67.67***
(9.24)
|
20.93*
(12.03)
|
Age 64 over
|
5.99
(7.81)
|
34.995***
(4.90)
|
183.89***
(16.26)
|
116.36***
(9.87)
|
176.67*** (12.86)
|
Married
|
-12.69*** (4.35)
|
5.17**
(2.73)
|
28.77***
(9.06)
|
26.49***
(5.50)
|
-49.45***
(7.17)
|
Widow/Separated/ Divorced
|
-1.66
(6.03)
|
.48
(3.79)
|
-11.94
(12.55)
|
14.54*
(7.63)
|
-7.53
(9.93)
|
Newfoundland
|
14.22* (8.29)
|
19.86***
(5.20)
|
-95.35***
(17.26)
|
42.39***
(10.48)
|
18.48 (13.65)
|
PEI
|
14.00 (11.63)
|
-4.21
(7.30)
|
-47.62**
(24.20)
|
-9.82
(14.70)
|
30.65 (19.15)
|
Nova Scotia
|
-13.44* (7.76)
|
16.17***
(4.87)
|
-17.26
(16.16)
|
7.32
(9.81)
|
14.33 (12.78)
|
New Brunswick
|
-2.06
(7.84)
|
13.67***
(4.92)
|
-31.23*
(16.31)
|
− .58
(9.91)
|
24.31* (12.90)
|
Quebec
|
13.42*** (5.04)
|
20.16***
(3.17)
|
-27.48***
(10.50)
|
.92
(6.38)
|
-7.87
(8.31)
|
Manitoba
|
-2.34
(7.88)
|
6.60
(4.94)
|
4.34
(16.39)
|
-3.66
(9.96)
|
-2.24
(12.97)
|
Saskatchewan
|
1.99
(8.22)
|
10.81**
(5.16)
|
21.71
(17.12)
|
-3.16
(10.40)
|
-16.03 (13.54)
|
Alberta
|
6.70
(6.58)
|
10.64***
(4.13)
|
7.76
(13.70)
|
2.90
(8.32)
|
-16.87 (10.84)
|
BC
|
15.82*** (5.96)
|
11.51***
(3.74)
|
-37.44***
(12.41)
|
12.46*
(7.54)
|
1.89
(9.82)
|
Rural Area
|
6.54
(4.47)
|
-2.57
(2.81)
|
-5.87
(9.31)
|
23.52***
(5.66)
|
-18.26**
(7.37)
|
High School Diploma
|
-15.94*** (5.92)
|
5.53
(3.71)
|
58.80***
(12.32)
|
-10.83
(7.48)
|
-16.53*
(9.75)
|
Trade Certificate
|
-9.33
(6.28)
|
.95
(3.94)
|
79.08***
(13.07)
|
6.63
(7.94)
|
-51.02*** (10.34)
|
College
|
-20.80***
(6.23)
|
6.42
(3.91)
|
85.59***
(12.97)
|
10.45
(7.87)
|
-49.76*** (10.26)
|
University Certificate/ Diploma
|
-23.26** (10.45)
|
9.42
(6.56)
|
72.67***
(21.75)
|
9.68
(13.21)
|
-45.29*** (17.21)
|
Bachelor's degree
|
-21.64*** (6.36)
|
12.84***
(3.99)
|
87.71***
(13.23)
|
-11.62
(8.04)
|
-48.23*** (10.47)
|
University Post Bachelor
|
-17.41** (7.30)
|
11.46**
(4.58)
|
90.90***
(15.19)
|
-10.22
(9.23)
|
-54.83*** (12.02)
|
Immigrant
|
6.17
(4.73)
|
2.64
(2.97)
|
20.93**
(9.84)
|
-10.997*
(5.98)
|
-29.01***
(7.79)
|
Having Child aged 4 and below
|
-2.67
(7.10)
|
-3.72
(4.45)
|
4.29
(14.77)
|
65.99***
(8.97)
|
-54.79*** (11.69)
|
Constant
|
535.06*** (7.97)
|
85.33***
(5.00)
|
248.44***
(16.60)
|
48.66***
(10.08)
|
332.61*** (13.13)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Table 9
Seeming Unrelated Regression- Self-reported Mental Health (Female sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor Mental Health
|
24.23**
(11.83)
|
4.37
(7.72)
|
-68.51***
(21.72)
|
2.07
(16.26)
|
28.56*
(17.20)
|
Fair Mental Health
|
10.30 (6.52)
|
-5.75
(4.25)
|
-12.69
(11.97)
|
4.45
(8.96)
|
-7.09
(9.47)
|
Good Mental Health
|
9.32**
(4.36)
|
-1.91
(2.85)
|
6.66
(8.00)
|
-4.15
(5.99)
|
-12.72**
(6.34)
|
Very Good Mental Health
|
5.07
(4.18)
|
− .68
(2.73)
|
12.31
(7.67)
|
-9.47*
(5.74)
|
-5.59
(6.07)
|
Age 25–44
|
-25.05*** (7.31)
|
-4.97
(4.77)
|
126.05***
(13.42)
|
76.02***
(10.04)
|
-21.63** (10.62)
|
Age 45–64
|
-19.81*** (7.28)
|
5.36
(4.75)
|
51.12***
(13.35)
|
81.47***
(9.99)
|
51.79*** (10.57)
|
Age 64 over
|
7.72
(7.57)
|
30.52***
(4.93)
|
-163.84*** (13.89)
|
121.62***
(10.39)
|
171.68*** (10.99)
|
Married
|
-8.19**
(4.13)
|
3.51
(2.69)
|
-33.04***
(7.58)
|
66.02***
(5.68)
|
-22.61***
(6.00)
|
Widow/Separated/ Divorced
|
-10.15** (4.87)
|
-1.35
(3.18)
|
-22.54**
(8.94)
|
26.12***
(6.69)
|
13.49*
(7.08)
|
Newfoundland
|
-2.67
(7.34)
|
.07
(4.79)
|
-15.63
(13.48)
|
28.73***
(10.09)
|
-8.40
(10.67)
|
PEI
|
− .213
(9.75)
|
.87
(6.36)
|
-19.66
(17.89)
|
-24.23**
(13.39)
|
45.45*** (14.16)
|
Nova Scotia
|
-14.85** (7.16)
|
7.56
(4.63)
|
22.84*
(13.04)
|
-10.46
(9.76)
|
-8.87
(10.33)
|
New Brunswick
|
7.07
(6.91)
|
4.57
(4.50)
|
-23.57*
(12.68)
|
-5.38
(9.49)
|
21.06** (10.04)
|
Quebec
|
1.03
(4.62)
|
18.50***
(3.02)
|
-5.44
(8.49)
|
-4.03
(6.35)
|
-9.52
(6.72)
|
Manitoba
|
19.36***
(7.18)
|
-1.52
(4.69)
|
-24.12*
(13.18)
|
4.46
(9.87)
|
2.05
(10.44)
|
Saskatchewan
|
18.04** (7.39)
|
2.48
(4.82)
|
-9.67
(13.56)
|
9.93
(10.15)
|
-14.98 (10.74)
|
Alberta
|
.42
(6.32)
|
9.01**
(4.12)
|
11.75
(11.60)
|
.550
(8.69)
|
-17.83*
(9.19)
|
BC
|
9.21*
(5.45)
|
12.48***
(3.55)
|
-10.35
(10.00)
|
-6.24
(7.49)
|
2.90
(7.92)
|
Rural Area
|
.18
(4.07)
|
2.97
(2.65)
|
-13.47*
(7.47)
|
31.01***
(5.59)
|
-17.89***
(5.91)
|
High School Diploma
|
-18.31*** (5.52)
|
2.83
(3.60)
|
43.58***
(10.14)
|
1.22
(7.59)
|
-20.48**
(8.03)
|
Trade Certificate
|
-25.25*** (6.87)
|
.54
(4.48)
|
67.73***
(12.61)
|
.23
(9.44)
|
-24.13**
(9.99)
|
College
|
-30.57*** (5.47)
|
6.58*
(3.57)
|
82.28***
(10.04)
|
6.21
(7.51)
|
-40.69***
(7.95)
|
University Certificate/ Diploma
|
-49.32*** (8.47)
|
5.19
(5.53)
|
90.28***
(15.55)
|
10.29
(11.64)
|
-37.17***
(12.31)
|
Bachelor's degree
|
-39.11*** (5.88)
|
12.56***
(3.84)
|
107.01***
(10.80)
|
-19.65**
(8.08)
|
-40.97***
(8.55)
|
University Post Bachelor
|
-52.12*** (7.16)
|
9.44**
(4.67)
|
129.43***
(13.15)
|
-29.34***
(9.84)
|
-43.81*** (10.41)
|
Immigrant
|
.94
(4.37)
|
− .11
(2.85)
|
7.43
(8.01)
|
8.55
(5.996)
|
-26.61***
(6.34)
|
Having Child aged 4 and below
|
-4.06
(6.52)
|
-7.78*
(4.25)
|
-105.85*** (11.97)
|
168.84***
(8.96)
|
-30.23***
(9.48)
|
Constant
|
554.29***
(8.20)
|
101.54***
(5.35)
|
211.70***
(15.04)
|
85.30***
(11.26)
|
278.75*** (11.91)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Age Group 25–54:
The study also examines how physical and mental health are related to time use patterns for prime-age individuals. For the male sample, poor physical health positively correlates with sleep hours and leisure while it has a negative relationship with time spent on personal care and market work. For the female sample, poor physical health significantly increases sleep hours, non-market hours, and leisure while it significantly reduces market hours. Regarding disability, for the male sample, disability has a significant positive association with leisure while it has a significant negative relationship with market hours. For the female sample, disability positively correlates with sleep hours, non-market hours, and leisure while it significantly reduces market work. Regarding mental health, for the male sample, poor mental health increases sleep hours and leisure while it reduces time spent on personal care and the market. For the female sample, mental health increases time spent on leisure while it reduces time on market work.
Robustness Check:
As part of the robustness check, the study utilized Tobit method to examine how physical health, mental health, and disability are related to time use. The results of the male sample, as shown in Table 10, suggest that poor health and fair health significantly increase time spent on sleep and leisure while they significantly reduce time spent on work. Table 11 shows the results of the Tobit regressions for the female sample, and they suggest that poor health positively correlates with sleep hours and leisure while it is negatively related to work hours. On the other hand, fair health increases time spent on sleep while it decreases time spent on work. These results are consistent with the findings from the SUR regressions. The Tobit regressions further suggest that disability significantly increases time spent on sleep and leisure for both male and female samples while it significantly reduces time spent on market work. These results are also consistent with the findings from the SUR regressions. Finally, regarding mental health, the Tobit results show that poor mental health significantly increases sleep hours and leisure while it significantly reduces time spent on personal care and market work for males. For female samples, poor mental health significantly increases sleep hours while it significantly reduces market hours. Thus, the Tobit regression results on mental health are consistent with the results of SUR regressions.
Table 10
Tobit Regression- Self-reported Physical Health (Male sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor Health
|
45.16*** (9.58)
|
-9.83
(6.23)
|
-175.53***
(23.12)
|
-10.30
(14.45)
|
98.32***
(16.93)
|
Fair Health
|
24.75*** (6.51)
|
-2.46
(4.22)
|
-58.93***
(15.32)
|
-11.14
(9.81)
|
36.01*** (11.51)
|
Good Health
|
1.32
(5.28)
|
− .87
(3.43)
|
− .47
(12.36)
|
-9.83
(7.98)
|
− .78
(9.35)
|
Very Good Health
|
3.49
(5.18)
|
− .63
(3.36)
|
-1.92
(12.11)
|
-5.82
(7.83)
|
-4.35
(9.16)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Full results are available upon request. |
Table 11
Tobit Regression-Self Reported Physical Health (Female sample)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor Health
|
66.93*** (8.87)
|
-5.19
(5.97)
|
-175.39***
(20.15)
|
-3.62
(13.20)
|
54.56*** (13.76)
|
Fair Health
|
19.93*** (6.04)
|
-3.97
(4.06)
|
-51.63***
(13.15)
|
− .83
(8.996)
|
7.46
(9.38)
|
Good Health
|
9.78**
(4.78)
|
-1.73
(3.21)
|
4.40
(10.27)
|
-3.08
(7.11)
|
-13.40*
(7.42)
|
Very Good Health
|
2.05
(4.66)
|
.29
(3.13)
|
12.28
(9.99)
|
-3.99
(6.93)
|
-9.95
(7.22)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Full results are available upon request. |
Table 12
Tobit Regression Self-Reported Mental Health (Male)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor-Mental Health
|
40.78***
(13.48)
|
-26.59***
(8.77)
|
-179.44*** (32.29)
|
5.99
(20.49)
|
127.09***
(23.83)
|
Fair- Mental Health
|
21.52*** (7.06)
|
-8.19**
(4.57)
|
-71.83***
(16.71)
|
− .46
(10.66)
|
33.89***
(12.49)
|
Good Mental Health
|
7.36
(4.67)
|
-4.72
(3.02)
|
-16.30
(10.96)
|
9.99
(7.03)
|
-5.62
(8.26)
|
Very Good Mental Health
|
− .42
(4.44)
|
-1.79
(2.87)
|
-2.48
(10.42)
|
8.52
(6.70)
|
-3.99
(7.87)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Full results are available upon request. |
Table 13
Tobit Regression Self-Reported Mental Health (Female)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Poor-Mental Health
|
24.29**
(11.84)
|
2.73
(7.94)
|
-87.93***
(25.93)
|
-14.13
(17.90)
|
23.76
(18.42)
|
Fair- Mental Health
|
10.29
(6.52)
|
-6.42
(4.36)
|
-21.61
(14.15)
|
5.00
(9.66)
|
-10.20
(10.13)
|
Good Mental Health
|
9.35**
(4.37)
|
-2.06
(2.92)
|
1.78
(9.47)
|
-5.31
(6.46)
|
-14.20
(6.76)
|
Very Good Mental Health
|
5.10
(4.18)
|
− .53
(2.79)
|
13.68
(9.05)
|
-8.92
(6.18)
|
-5.89
(6.48)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Full results are available upon request. |
Table 14
Tobit Regression for Disability (Male)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Disable
|
15.86***
(3.71)
|
-1.21
(2.40)
|
-84.55***
(8.71)
|
18.22
(5.57)
|
39.20***
(6.57)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Full results are available upon request. |
Table 15
Tobit Regression for Disability (Female)
|
Sleep
|
Personal Care
|
Market Work
|
Non-Market Work
|
Leisure
|
Disable
|
14.50***
(3.23)
|
.94
(2.16)
|
-56.07***
(7.01)
|
6.64
(4.79)
|
17.29***
(5.01)
|
Note: *** denotes significant at the 1% level; ** denotes significant at the 5% level; * denotes significant at the 10% level. |
Full results are available upon request. |