Sample profile
Table 1 shows the sample profile by gender with suitable socio-economic, demographic, and health characteristics among older adults in India from the period (2017-18). There are 65.56% young-old women & 64% young-old men, with oldest-old woman (9%) somewhat higher than oldest-old men (8%), while middle-old women (25%) are lower than middle-old men (27%). Only 52% older women are currently married which is much lower than older men (84%). More than 91% older women are dependent, which is far higher than of older males (51 %). Immobile older women constitute around 11% that is higher than older men (8%). About 63% of older women & 35% of older men have no education. Older women have marginally lower insurance coverage than men. Chronic disease is marginally higher among older women (24%) than older men (23%) while hospitalization cases are greater among older men (27%) than older women (24%). Majority of the older men live with spouse (83%) while only 52% of older women live with their spouse. The majority of both older women & men belonged to the rural residence, Southern region, Hindu religion, most affluent group respectively.
Table 1 Sample distribution of self-rated health among older adults in India by gender with suitable background characteristics, 2017-18. (n=42,759).
Background characteristics
|
Men
|
Women
|
%
|
N
|
%
|
N
|
Age-group (in years)
|
|
|
|
|
Young-old (60-69)
|
64.35
|
14,094
|
65.56
|
13,674
|
Middle-old (70-79)
|
27.29
|
5,977
|
25.20
|
5,256
|
Oldest-old (80+)
|
8.36
|
1,831
|
9.24
|
1,927
|
Marital Status
|
|
|
|
|
Currently married
|
84.51
|
18,510
|
51.84
|
10,812
|
Never married
|
0.74
|
161
|
0.43
|
89
|
Separated or Divorced
|
14.75
|
3,231
|
47.73
|
9,956
|
Economic dependency
|
|
|
|
|
Independent
|
48.37
|
10,595
|
8.67
|
1,808
|
Dependent
|
51.63
|
11,307
|
91.33
|
19,049
|
Educational attainment
|
|
|
|
|
No education
|
35.37
|
7,746
|
62.92
|
13,123
|
Primary
|
33.05
|
7,238
|
24.67
|
5,145
|
Secondary
|
20.22
|
4,429
|
8.15
|
1,699
|
Higher
|
11.36
|
2,489
|
4.27
|
890
|
Working status
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
51.58
|
11,298
|
67.80
|
14,142
|
No
|
48.42
|
10,604
|
32.20
|
6,715
|
Living arrangement
|
|
|
|
|
With Spouse
|
83.16
|
18,214
|
52.32
|
10,913
|
Without Spouse
|
16.84
|
3,688
|
47.68
|
9,944
|
Physical mobility status
|
|
|
|
|
Mobile
|
91.48
|
20,036
|
88.75
|
18,510
|
Immobile
|
8.52
|
1,866
|
11.25
|
2,347
|
Communicable disease
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
97.71
|
21,401
|
97.75
|
20,388
|
Yes
|
2.29
|
501
|
2.25
|
469
|
Chronic diseases
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
76.78
|
16,817
|
75.97
|
15,846
|
Yes
|
23.22
|
5,085
|
24.03
|
5,011
|
Any other ailments
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
95.60
|
20,939
|
95.38
|
19,894
|
Yes
|
4.40
|
963
|
4.62
|
963
|
Hospitalization
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
72.08
|
15,787
|
76.24
|
15,902
|
Yes
|
27.92
|
6,115
|
23.76
|
4,955
|
Insurance coverage
|
|
|
|
|
Covered
|
21.08
|
4,616
|
20.42
|
4,258
|
Uncovered
|
78.92
|
17,286
|
79.58
|
16,599
|
Household Income
|
|
|
|
|
Poorest
|
16.74
|
3,666
|
16.90
|
3,525
|
Poorer
|
16.54
|
3,622
|
16.90
|
3,525
|
Middle
|
18.96
|
4,153
|
19.06
|
3,975
|
Richer
|
22.65
|
4,960
|
22.40
|
4,673
|
Richest
|
25.12
|
5,501
|
24.74
|
5,159
|
Religion
|
|
|
|
|
Hindus
|
77.52
|
16,979
|
77.96
|
16,261
|
Muslims
|
11.64
|
2,550
|
11.43
|
2,384
|
Christians
|
6.04
|
1,322
|
6.00
|
1,251
|
Others
|
4.80
|
1,051
|
4.61
|
961
|
Caste groups
|
|
|
|
|
General
|
38.05
|
8,333
|
37.7
|
7,863
|
SC
|
9.21
|
2,018
|
9.09
|
1,895
|
ST
|
14.31
|
3,135
|
14.36
|
2,996
|
OBC
|
38.43
|
8,416
|
38.85
|
8,103
|
Household Size
|
|
|
|
|
<=5
|
48.20
|
10,556
|
51.03
|
10,644
|
>5
|
51.80
|
11,346
|
48.97
|
10,213
|
Primary source of cooking
|
|
|
|
|
Smokeless
|
66.35
|
14,532
|
65.84
|
13,733
|
Smoke
|
33.65
|
7,370
|
34.16
|
7,124
|
Owned house
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
5.86
|
1,283
|
13.04
|
2,720
|
Yes
|
94.14
|
20,619
|
86.96
|
18,137
|
Place of residence
|
|
|
|
|
Urban
|
44.72
|
9,794
|
44.92
|
9,368
|
Rural
|
55.28
|
12,108
|
55.08
|
11,489
|
Regions
|
|
|
|
|
Northern
|
20.34
|
4,454
|
20.81
|
4,340
|
North-Eastern
|
9.90
|
2,169
|
8.73
|
1,820
|
Central
|
14.87
|
3,256
|
14.78
|
3,082
|
Eastern
|
16.77
|
3,672
|
15.89
|
3,314
|
Western
|
14.04
|
3,076
|
14.91
|
3,110
|
Southern
|
24.08
|
5,275
|
24.89
|
5,191
|
Total
|
100
|
21,902
|
100
|
20,857
|
Source: Authors’ own calculation using 75th round of National Sample Survey data. Abbreviations: SC-Schedule Caste; ST-Schedule Tribe; OBC-Other Backward Caste.
Gender gaps in poor current SRH
Table 2 presents absolute gender gaps (%) in poor self-reported health about current health status among older adults. The overall absolute gender gap in poor SRHcurrent is 3.27%. About 4% absolute gender gaps (AGG) are observed in poor SRHcurrent among both young-old and middle-old age groups, which are higher than the oldest-old age. However, the higher educational attainment shows greater AGG in poor SRHcurrent which is 6.2%. Those who are physically-mobile have higher AGG in poor SRHcurrent than immobile. Despite that, uncovered insurance support (3.63%) has greater AGG in poor SRHcurrent than covered insurance (1.73%). Richest household income group (6.29%) has showed greater AGG in poor SRHcurrent than other household income groups. Higher AGG in poor SRHcurrent is observed among Christians (5.32%) and General caste (4.55%) than other religion or caste groups. However, those elderly who owned house has showed higher AGG in poor SRHcurrent than who do not owned. Lower AGG in poor SRHcurrent is observed in rural residence than urban. Besides that, greater AGG in good SRHcurrent is reflected among Northern region with 5.1% followed by Eastern (3.9%) and Southern (3.3%) while lowest is seen among North-eastern region (0.3%).
Table 2 Absolute gender gaps (%) in Self-Rated Health (SRH) about current health status among older adults in India by gender with suitable background characteristics, 2017-18 (n=42,759).
|
Self-Rated Health about current health status (SRHCurrent)
|
Absolute gap in SRHCurrent
|
Background characteristics
|
Men
|
Women
|
Excellent
|
Poor
|
Excellent
|
Poor
|
Age-group (in years)
|
|
|
|
|
|
Young-old (60-69)
|
12.87
|
87.22
|
8.73
|
91.27
|
4.05
|
Middle-old (70-79)
|
6.35
|
93.65
|
4.49
|
95.51
|
1.86
|
Oldest-old (80+)
|
3.42
|
96.58
|
3.01
|
96.99
|
0.41
|
Marital Status
|
|
|
|
|
|
Currently married
|
10.89
|
89.11
|
8.59
|
91.41
|
2.30
|
Never married
|
0.26
|
99.74
|
1.05
|
98.95
|
-0.79
|
Separated or Divorced
|
8.41
|
91.59
|
5.92
|
94.08
|
2.49
|
Economic dependency
|
|
|
|
|
|
Independent
|
14.34
|
85.66
|
13.97
|
86.03
|
0.37
|
Dependent
|
6.35
|
93.65
|
6.39
|
93.61
|
-0.04
|
Educational attainment
|
|
|
|
|
|
No education
|
8.07
|
91.93
|
6.18
|
93.82
|
1.89
|
Primary
|
9.32
|
90.68
|
7.85
|
92.15
|
1.47
|
Secondary
|
14.35
|
85.65
|
12.87
|
87.13
|
1.48
|
Higher
|
17.40
|
82.60
|
11.20
|
88.80
|
6.20
|
Working status
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
12.94
|
87.06
|
8.01
|
91.99
|
4.93
|
No
|
7.17
|
92.83
|
5.25
|
94.75
|
1.92
|
Living arrangement
|
|
|
|
|
|
With Spouse
|
19.39
|
80.61
|
18.55
|
81.45
|
0.84
|
Without Spouse
|
15.76
|
84.24
|
17.78
|
82.22
|
-2.02
|
Physical mobility status
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mobile
|
10.8
|
89.20
|
7.47
|
92.53
|
3.33
|
Immobile
|
4.69
|
95.31
|
3.83
|
96.17
|
0.86
|
Communicable disease
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
10.47
|
89.53
|
7.21
|
92.79
|
3.26
|
Yes
|
6.90
|
93.10
|
3.14
|
96.86
|
3.76
|
Chronic diseases
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
12.17
|
87.83
|
8.43
|
91.57
|
3.74
|
Yes
|
4.26
|
95.74
|
2.77
|
97.23
|
1.49
|
Any other ailments
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
10.49
|
89.51
|
7.26
|
92.74
|
3.23
|
Yes
|
9.13
|
90.87
|
5.33
|
94.67
|
3.80
|
Hospitalization
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
10.86
|
89.14
|
7.46
|
92.54
|
3.40
|
Yes
|
4.65
|
95.35
|
2.43
|
97.57
|
2.22
|
Insurance coverage
|
|
|
|
|
|
Covered
|
7.45
|
92.55
|
5.72
|
94.28
|
1.73
|
Uncovered
|
11.11
|
88.89
|
7.48
|
92.52
|
3.63
|
Household Income
|
|
|
|
|
|
Poorest
|
9.07
|
90.93
|
5.90
|
94.10
|
3.17
|
Poorer
|
9.74
|
90.26
|
6.38
|
93.62
|
3.36
|
Middle
|
9.75
|
90.25
|
9.28
|
90.72
|
0.47
|
Richer
|
9.89
|
90.11
|
7.00
|
93.00
|
2.89
|
Richest
|
13.65
|
86.35
|
7.36
|
92.64
|
6.29
|
Religion
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hindus
|
10.51
|
89.49
|
7.12
|
92.88
|
3.39
|
Muslims
|
9.39
|
90.61
|
7.40
|
92.60
|
1.99
|
Christians
|
12.4
|
87.60
|
7.08
|
92.92
|
5.32
|
Others
|
9.54
|
90.46
|
7.11
|
92.89
|
2.43
|
Caste groups
|
|
|
|
|
|
General
|
12.01
|
87.99
|
7.46
|
92.54
|
4.55
|
SC
|
9.20
|
90.80
|
6.86
|
93.14
|
2.34
|
ST
|
8.29
|
91.71
|
5.86
|
94.14
|
2.43
|
OBC
|
10.15
|
89.85
|
7.46
|
92.54
|
2.69
|
Household Size
|
|
|
|
|
|
<=5
|
9.94
|
90.06
|
6.92
|
93.08
|
3.02
|
>5
|
11.05
|
88.95
|
7.50
|
92.50
|
3.55
|
Primary source of cooking
|
|
|
|
|
|
Smokeless
|
11.76
|
88.24
|
8.42
|
91.58
|
3.34
|
Smoke
|
8.50
|
91.50
|
5.31
|
94.69
|
3.19
|
Owned house
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
5.57
|
94.43
|
4.51
|
95.49
|
1.06
|
Yes
|
10.71
|
89.29
|
7.54
|
92.46
|
3.17
|
Place of residence
|
|
|
|
|
|
Urban
|
12.72
|
87.28
|
8.67
|
91.33
|
4.05
|
Rural
|
9.30
|
90.70
|
6.39
|
93.61
|
2.91
|
Regions
|
|
|
|
|
|
Northern
|
11.22
|
88.70
|
6.11
|
93.80
|
5.10
|
North-Eastern
|
9.70
|
90.30
|
9.39
|
90.60
|
0.30
|
Central
|
8.78
|
91.20
|
6.14
|
93.80
|
2.60
|
Eastern
|
7.48
|
92.50
|
3.55
|
96.40
|
3.90
|
Western
|
15.55
|
84.40
|
12.54
|
87.40
|
3.00
|
Southern
|
10.48
|
89.50
|
7.16
|
92.80
|
3.30
|
Total
|
10.42
|
89.58
|
7.15
|
92.85
|
3.27
|
Source: Authors’ own calculation using 75th round of National Sample Survey data. Abbreviations: SC-Schedule Caste; ST-Schedule Tribe; OBC-Other Backward Caste. Notes: Chi-square tests were significant at P < .0001.
Gender gaps in worse change in SRH
Table 3 presents absolute gender gaps (%) in change in SRH among older adults in India from 2017-18. The overall absolute gender gap (AGG) in worse change in self-rated health status (SRHchange) was 0.58%. Around 1.3% AGG in worse SRHchange are found among middle-old which is greater than the young-old (0.29%). Older adults who are currently married 1.07% has higher AGG in worse SRHchange. Interestingly, older adults with higher educational attainment shows greatest AGG in worse SRHchange with 11.31%. Older adults who can physically mobile (0.98%), suffered from communicable diseases (9.62%) and other ailments (5.84%) showed higher AGG in worse SRHchange. Older adults who do not have health insurance support and belonging to Richer household income group have higher AGG in worse SRHchange. Greater AGG in worse SRHchange are seen among older adults belonging to Muslim religion (2.94%) and general caste (2.94%) respectively. Older adults with household size more than five members have higher AGG in worse SRHchange.Those older adults who do not owned house have greater AGG in worse SRHchange than who owned house. Older adults who use smoke-as a primary source of energy for cooking in the household has greater AGG in worse SRHchange. Again, Northern region showed higher AGG in worse SRHchange than other regions respectively.
Table 3 Absolute gender gaps (%) in Self-Rated Health (SRH) about change in health status among older adults in India by gender with suitable background characteristics, 2017-18 (n=42,759).
Background characteristics
|
Self-Rated Health about change in health status (SRHChange)
|
Gap in SRHChange
|
Men
|
Women
|
Better
|
Worse
|
Better
|
Worse
|
Age-group (in years)
|
|
|
|
|
|
Young-old (60-69)
|
19.90
|
80.10
|
19.61
|
80.39
|
0.29
|
Middle-old (70-79)
|
17.30
|
82.70
|
16.00
|
84.00
|
1.30
|
Oldest-old (80+)
|
13.19
|
86.81
|
13.37
|
86.63
|
-0.18
|
Marital Status
|
|
|
|
|
|
Currently married
|
19.60
|
80.40
|
18.53
|
81.47
|
1.07
|
Never married
|
8.32
|
91.68
|
13.52
|
86.48
|
-5.20
|
Separated or Divorced
|
14.74
|
85.26
|
17.85
|
82.15
|
-3.11
|
Economic dependency
|
|
|
|
|
|
Independent
|
20.45
|
79.55
|
24.74
|
75.26
|
-4.29
|
Dependent
|
16.95
|
83.05
|
17.42
|
82.58
|
-0.47
|
Educational attainment
|
|
|
|
|
|
No education
|
16.89
|
83.11
|
16.75
|
83.25
|
0.14
|
Primary
|
17.70
|
82.30
|
21.86
|
78.14
|
-4.16
|
Secondary
|
23.41
|
76.59
|
24.16
|
75.84
|
-0.75
|
Higher
|
22.12
|
77.88
|
10.81
|
89.19
|
11.31
|
Working status
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
20.56
|
79.44
|
19.01
|
80.99
|
1.55
|
No
|
16.38
|
83.62
|
16.26
|
83.74
|
0.12
|
Living arrangement
|
|
|
|
|
|
With Spouse
|
10.93
|
89.07
|
8.66
|
91.34
|
2.27
|
Without Spouse
|
8.08
|
91.92
|
5.78
|
94.22
|
2.30
|
Physical mobility status
|
|
|
|
|
|
Mobile
|
18.93
|
81.07
|
17.95
|
82.05
|
0.98
|
Immobile
|
15.81
|
84.19
|
20.18
|
79.82
|
-4.37
|
Communicable disease
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
18.64
|
81.36
|
18.2
|
81.80
|
0.44
|
Yes
|
24.58
|
75.42
|
14.96
|
85.04
|
9.62
|
Chronic diseases
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
20.16
|
79.84
|
19.65
|
80.35
|
0.51
|
Yes
|
13.73
|
86.27
|
13.01
|
86.99
|
0.72
|
Any other ailments
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
18.56
|
81.44
|
18.29
|
81.71
|
0.27
|
Yes
|
21.59
|
78.41
|
15.75
|
84.25
|
5.84
|
Hospitalization
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
18.71
|
81.29
|
18.10
|
81.90
|
0.61
|
Yes
|
19.03
|
80.97
|
18.80
|
81.20
|
0.23
|
Insurance coverage
|
|
|
|
|
|
Covered
|
16.57
|
83.43
|
17.35
|
82.65
|
-0.78
|
Uncovered
|
19.24
|
80.76
|
18.33
|
81.67
|
0.91
|
Household Income
|
|
|
|
|
|
Poorest
|
17.69
|
82.31
|
15.99
|
84.01
|
1.70
|
Poorer
|
16.88
|
83.12
|
16.73
|
83.27
|
0.15
|
Middle
|
18.66
|
81.34
|
20.86
|
79.14
|
-2.20
|
Richer
|
20.24
|
79.76
|
17.74
|
82.26
|
2.50
|
Richest
|
20.21
|
79.79
|
19.70
|
80.30
|
0.51
|
Religion
|
|
|
|
|
|
Hindus
|
18.86
|
81.14
|
18.56
|
81.44
|
0.30
|
Muslims
|
18.37
|
81.63
|
15.43
|
84.57
|
2.94
|
Christians
|
18.08
|
81.92
|
18.03
|
81.97
|
0.05
|
Others
|
17.27
|
82.73
|
16.33
|
83.67
|
0.94
|
Caste groups
|
|
|
|
|
|
General
|
19.28
|
80.72
|
16.34
|
83.66
|
2.94
|
SC
|
17.53
|
82.47
|
16.37
|
83.63
|
1.16
|
ST
|
15.99
|
84.01
|
15.47
|
84.53
|
0.52
|
OBC
|
19.62
|
80.38
|
20.85
|
79.15
|
-1.23
|
Household Size
|
|
|
|
|
|
<=5
|
19.03
|
80.97
|
19.18
|
80.82
|
-0.15
|
>5
|
18.34
|
81.66
|
16.61
|
83.39
|
1.73
|
Primary source of cooking
|
|
|
|
|
|
Smokeless
|
20.88
|
79.12
|
20.47
|
79.53
|
0.41
|
Smoke
|
15.66
|
84.34
|
14.80
|
85.20
|
0.86
|
Owned house
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
13.71
|
86.29
|
11.67
|
88.33
|
2.04
|
Yes
|
19.04
|
80.96
|
19.10
|
80.90
|
-0.06
|
Place of residence
|
|
|
|
|
|
Urban
|
21.04
|
78.96
|
20.12
|
79.88
|
0.92
|
Rural
|
17.62
|
82.38
|
17.17
|
82.83
|
0.45
|
Regions
|
|
|
|
|
|
Northern
|
16.24
|
83.76
|
13.09
|
86.91
|
3.15
|
North-Eastern
|
18.51
|
81.49
|
19.54
|
80.46
|
-1.03
|
Central
|
17.12
|
82.88
|
15.09
|
84.91
|
2.03
|
Eastern
|
11.35
|
88.65
|
13.68
|
86.32
|
-2.33
|
Western
|
23.91
|
76.09
|
21.88
|
78.12
|
2.03
|
Southern
|
24.35
|
75.65
|
23.45
|
76.55
|
0.90
|
Total
|
18.73
|
81.27
|
18.15
|
81.85
|
0.58
|
Source: Authors’ own calculation using 75th round of National Sample Survey data. Abbreviations: SC-Schedule Caste; ST-Schedule Tribe; OBC-Other Backward Caste. Notes: Chi-square tests were significant at P < .0001.
Determinants of poor SRHcurrent and worse SRHchange
Table 4 presents the result of binary logistic regression analysis of poor SRHcurrent (Model 1) & worse SRHchange (Model 2) among older adults in India with suitable background characteristics, 2017-18.
Model 1 in Table 4 presents that poor SRHcurrent versus excellent are found to be significantly greater among older women [AOR=1.09; CI=0.99, 1.19] than older men. The middle-old [AOR=1.81; CI=1.64, 2.00] and oldest-old [AOR=2.43; CI=1.96, 3.00] have significantly higher odds of poor SRHcurrent compared to young old. However, economically dependent older adults [AOR=1.98; CI=1.81, 2.16] are significantly more likely to have poor SRHcurrent compared to economically independent older adults. Older adults with primary [AOR=0.85; CI=0.77, 0.93], secondary [AOR=0.69; CI=0.61, 0.78] and higher [AOR=0.55; CI=0.47, 0.64] education level have significantly lower odds of poor SRHcurrent compared to no education. Physically immobile older adults [OR=1.77; CI=1.43, 2.18] are significantly more likely to have poor SRHcurrent compared to who can physically mobile. Lower odds of poor SRHcurrent are observed among older adults suffered with communicable diseases [AOR=0.74; CI=0.57, 0.96] while greater odds of poor SRHcurrent are seen with chronic diseases [AOR=3.36; CI=2.96, 3.81]. However, significantly greater odds of poor SRHcurrent are seen among older adults who have been hospitalized [AOR=2.25; CI=2.02, 2.51]. On the other hand, older adults who are not covered with any health insurance [AOR=0.87; CI=0.79, 0.95] and belonging to richest income group [OR=0.78; CI=0.68, 0.91] have lower odds of poor SRHcurrent. Muslims [AOR=1.20; CI=1.05, 1.36] are significantly more likely to have poor SRHcurrent compared to Hindus. While Schedule caste [AOR=0.85; CI=0.73, 0.99] and OBC [AOR=0.92; CI=0.84, 1.01] are less likely to have poor SRHcurrent compared to General caste. However, Eastern region [AOR=1.46; CI=1.27, 1.69] are significantly more likely to have poor SRHcurrent while Western [AOR=0.58; CI=0.52, 0.65] and Southern [AOR=0.73; CI=0.65, 0.83] regions are significantly less likely to have poor SRHcurrent compared to Northern region respectively.
Meanwhile, in Table 4, Model 2 presents the result of binary logistic regression for SRHchange among older adults in India. We found similar finding as seen in the model 1, where, older women, middle-old, oldest-old, economically dependent, physically immobile, working older adults are significantly more likely to have worse change in SRH. While older adults with primary, secondary and higher educational level, Schedule caste and OBC have lower odd of worse SRHchange and significant associations. Older adults who suffered from chronic diseases and other other ailments are more likely to have worse SRHchange. While lower worse SRHchange have been seen among older adults who were hospitalized and not covered with health insurance. Here, Muslim religion [AOR=1.16; CI=1.06, 1.26] has also found to have greater of worse SRHchange compared to Hindus. Now, compared to the urban residence, rural residence [AOR=1.09; CI=1.02, 1.16] has higher odds of worse SRHchange. However, Southern, Western, Central and North-eastern regions showed lower worse SRHchange while the Eastern region [AOR=1.21; CI=1.09, 1.33] show higher odds of worse SRHchange than the Northern region.
Table 4 Binary logistic regression results for current and change in self-rated health among older adults in India by gender with suitable background characteristics, 2017-18. (n=42,759).
Background characteristics
|
(Model 1)
Current SRH
|
(Model 2)
Change in SRH
|
Adjusted Odds ratio
|
Conf. Intervals
|
Adjusted Odds ratio
|
Conf. Intervals
|
Lower
|
Upper
|
Lower
|
Upper
|
Gender
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
MenÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Women
|
1.09*
|
0.99
|
1.19
|
1.09***
|
1.02
|
1.16
|
Age-group (in years)
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Young-old (60-69)Ò
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Middle-old (70-79)
|
1.81***
|
1.64
|
2.00
|
1.23***
|
1.16
|
1.31
|
Oldest-old (80+)
|
2.43***
|
1.96
|
3.00
|
1.44***
|
1.29
|
1.60
|
Marital Status
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Currently marriedÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Never married
|
2.09**
|
1.04
|
4.19
|
1.07
|
0.75
|
1.53
|
Separated or Divorced
|
0.96
|
0.80
|
1.17
|
0.97
|
0.86
|
1.10
|
Economic dependency
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
IndependentÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Dependent
|
1.98***
|
1.81
|
2.16
|
1.08**
|
1.01
|
1.15
|
Educational attainment
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No educationÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Primary
|
0.85***
|
0.77
|
0.93
|
0.95*
|
0.89
|
1.01
|
Secondary
|
0.69***
|
0.61
|
0.78
|
0.88***
|
0.81
|
0.95
|
Higher
|
0.55***
|
0.47
|
0.64
|
0.82***
|
0.73
|
0.91
|
Working status
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
YesÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
No
|
1.44***
|
1.33
|
1.57
|
1.13***
|
1.07
|
1.20
|
Living arrangement
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
With SpouseÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Without Spouse
|
1.09
|
0.91
|
1.32
|
1.06
|
0.94
|
1.19
|
Physical mobility status
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
MobileÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Immobile
|
1.77***
|
1.43
|
2.18
|
1.26***
|
1.14
|
1.39
|
Communicable disease
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NoÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
0.74**
|
0.57
|
0.96
|
1.11
|
0.93
|
1.32
|
Chronic diseases
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NoÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
3.36***
|
2.96
|
3.81
|
1.76***
|
1.65
|
1.88
|
Any other ailments
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NoÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
1.43***
|
1.17
|
1.74
|
1.11*
|
0.98
|
1.26
|
Hospitalization
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NoÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
2.25***
|
2.02
|
2.51
|
0.84***
|
0.79
|
0.89
|
Insurance coverage
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
CoveredÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Uncovered
|
0.87***
|
0.79
|
0.95
|
0.86***
|
0.80
|
0.92
|
Household Income
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
PoorestÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Poorer
|
0.99
|
0.87
|
1.13
|
0.99
|
0.90
|
1.08
|
Middle
|
0.95
|
0.83
|
1.08
|
0.99
|
0.91
|
1.09
|
Richer
|
0.94
|
0.82
|
1.07
|
0.93
|
0.85
|
1.02
|
Richest
|
0.78***
|
0.68
|
0.91
|
0.92
|
0.83
|
1.02
|
Religion
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
HindusÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Muslims
|
1.20***
|
1.05
|
1.36
|
1.16***
|
1.06
|
1.26
|
Christians
|
0.94
|
0.80
|
1.11
|
0.97
|
0.86
|
1.09
|
Others
|
1.01
|
0.85
|
1.21
|
1.04
|
0.92
|
1.18
|
Caste groups
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
GeneralÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SC
|
0.85**
|
0.73
|
0.99
|
0.90**
|
0.81
|
1.00
|
ST
|
1.03
|
0.91
|
1.16
|
1.02
|
0.94
|
1.11
|
OBC
|
0.92*
|
0.84
|
1.01
|
0.94*
|
0.89
|
1.00
|
Household Size
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
<=5Ò
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
>5
|
0.81***
|
0.75
|
0.88
|
1.00
|
0.95
|
1.06
|
Primary source of cooking
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SmokelessÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Smoke
|
1.22***
|
1.11
|
1.34
|
1.26***
|
1.18
|
1.34
|
Owned house
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NoÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Yes
|
0.88*
|
0.75
|
1.02
|
0.84***
|
0.76
|
0.92
|
Place of residence
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
UrbanÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Rural
|
1.03
|
0.94
|
1.13
|
1.09***
|
1.02
|
1.16
|
Regions
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NorthernÒ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
North-Eastern
|
0.98
|
0.84
|
1.14
|
0.88**
|
0.79
|
0.98
|
Central
|
1.08
|
0.94
|
1.23
|
0.87***
|
0.79
|
0.95
|
Eastern
|
1.46***
|
1.27
|
1.69
|
1.21***
|
1.09
|
1.33
|
Western
|
0.58***
|
0.52
|
0.65
|
0.62***
|
0.57
|
0.67
|
Southern
|
0.73***
|
0.65
|
0.83
|
0.57***
|
0.52
|
0.62
|
Source: Authors’ own calculation using 75th round of National Sample Survey data. Abbreviations: SC-Schedule Caste; ST-Schedule Tribe; OBC-Other Backward Caste; AOR-Adjusted odds ratio; C.I.- confidence interval. Notes: Self-Rated Health (SRH) about current health status is the dependent variable for model 1; Self-Rated Health (SRH) about change in health status is another dependent variable indicated by Model 2; confidence interval in the parentheses; Significant level at: *** significant at 1 percent, ** significant at 5 percent and * significant at 10 percent; ® is the reference category of the independent variables.