High-voltage Linear LED Driving for Three-phase AC Power Grids: A Competitive Scheme for General Lighting

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1957888/v1

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High-voltage Linear LED Driving for Three-phase AC Power Grids: A Competitive Scheme for General Lighting

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-1957888/v1

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This work investigates the high-voltage linear multi-string LED driving scheme for three-phase AC power grids and confirms the superiority and practicality of this scheme in lighting applications for the first time. Three-phase AC power amplifies the excellent performance of linear multi-string LED driving systems in comparison to single-phase AC power. Based on the features of the rectified voltage waveform in the three-phase AC power supply, the LED distributions of the linear multi-string LED driving scheme were calculated with a unique optimization method to balance LED power and driving efficiency within ± 10% voltage fluctuations. And a double-string LED lighting system was constructed as a module prototype with the capability of scaling up. The experimental results exhibit high driving efficiency (~ 94% @380V line voltage), high power factor (~ 0.952), flicker-free, and high reliability at an extremely low cost (~$0.005/W).

LED driver

Linear circuits

Three-phase electric power

capacitorless

flicker free

Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) have significant potential to replace traditional lighting sources and are considered as the fourth generation of solid-state light sources, following incandescent, fluorescent, and high-intensity discharge lamps. Due to the advantages of high efficiency, small size, fast response, and long life¹, LEDs are widely utilized in commercial lighting, medical lighting, agricultural lighting, sports lighting, entertainment lighting, and other fields. These applications are realized by driving LEDs that require constant current rather than constant voltage².

Conventional LED driving systems with constant current are broadly classified into two competitive architectures, namely the switched-mode power supply (SMPS)³ and linear-mode driving⁴. Typical SMPS LED driving circuit topologies, such as buck⁵, boost⁶, and buck-boost⁷, are characterized by high efficiency and low flicker with a large size and a comparatively higher cost. Linear LED driving circuit topologies, on the other hand, primarily use linear constant-current regulators, avoiding complex structures including voltage transformation, filtering, and voltage stabilization in SMPSs. This compact topology of linear LED driving contributes to high reliability, long life, and low cost, as proven in single-phase AC power grids^8–10.

However, the high pulsation of the single-phase AC rectifier voltage makes it impossible to achieve high power factor (PF) and flicker-free at the same time, limiting the application of linear LED driving in the high-end market. As a common sense, general lighting is always powered by single-phase AC power, and only for those high-power lightings three-phase AC power is considered. At present, there is no report of three-phase AC power being used to drive LEDs in linear mode. In this work, we turned the sight at the three-phase AC power for LED general lighting. It was found that the three-phase AC power can easily make up for the shortcomings of single-phase AC power in linear LED driving. The features of three-phase AC power are mainly reflected in three aspects:

The frequency of the three-phase AC rectifier voltage with a diode-bridge full-wave rectifier is six times the fundamental frequency of the power grid and three times the frequency of the single-phase AC rectifier voltage.

The DC component of the three-phase AC rectifier voltage is significant (~ 90.7% of the effective voltage). The flicker problem can be effectively alleviated by the higher frequency and the significant DC component.

Three-phase power provides a higher rectified voltage than single-phase power and is adaptable to thinner cables, yielding a reduced wiring cost.

Therefore, we started to investigate the three-phase AC power as a linear LED driving power supply, especially in specific public and industrial lighting applications such as tunnel lights, high bay lights, stadium spotlights, and floodlights, all of which are in hard-to-access locations with available three-phase AC power grids¹¹. Its superiority and practicality are demonstrated for the first time in this paper.

Our efforts include: we used a unique optimization method calculate the LED distributions for the linear multi-string LED driving scheme to balance LED power and driving efficiency within ± 10% voltage fluctuations; we built and tested a modular prototype of a linear two-string LED driving lighting system for three-phase AC power. The experimental results exhibit high driving efficiency, high PF, and flicker-free. It verifies that the linear LED driving scheme with three-phase AC power can readily solve the dilemma between PF and flicker for single-phase AC power while maintaining the traits of high reliability, compact size, and low cost.

This paper is composed as follows: Section I explicates the motivation and efforts for driving LEDs linearly utilizing three-phase AC power. Section II describes the topology and the operation principles. Section III calculates the LED power and driving efficiency of the multi-string LED architecture to optimize the distribution of LEDs in sub-strings. Section IV presents the experimental results and discussion of the high-voltage linear double-string LED driving prototype. Lastly, the conclusion is given in Section V.

The equivalent circuit diagram of the high-voltage linear multi-string LED driving scheme for three-phase AC power grids is shown in Fig. 1. It is primarily composed of two modules: a three-phase full-wave rectification circuit and a linear multi-string LED driving circuit without capacitors and inductors. The three-phase full-wave rectification circuit, which supplies a high pulsating-DC voltage to loads, comprises a three-phase AC power supply and a set of rectifier diodes. The linear multi-string LED driving circuit is built with LED sub-strings and a linear constant current regulator with multiple ports. Further, the current regulator typically contains metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), comparators, operational amplifiers, resistors, and other components⁴, where it is equivalent to controllable current sources.

The left box in Fig. 1 shows a three-phase full-wave rectification circuit. In this circuit, AC power is converted into uncontrollable pulsating-DC power. 6 rectifier diodes are utilized in the AC/DC conversion process, and their conduction sequence in the three-phase full-wave rectification circuit is D₁-D₂-D₃-D₄-D₅-D₆.

The three-phase voltage in the power grid used to drive LEDs can be expressed separately as Eq. (1)-(3)

$${V}_{a}\left(t\right)=\sqrt{2}U\text{sin}\left(\omega t\right) \left(1\right)$$

$${V}_{b}\left(t\right)=\sqrt{2}U\text{sin}\left(\omega t-\frac{2}{3}\pi \right) \left(2\right)$$

$${V}_{c}\left(t\right)=\sqrt{2}U\text{sin}\left(\omega t+\frac{2}{3}\pi \right) \left(3\right)$$

Where U is the phase voltage.

Rectified voltage, i.e., the input voltage V_in for LEDs, is Eq. (4)

$${V}_{in}\left(t\right)=Max\left({V}_{a}\left(t\right), {V}_{b}\left(t\right),{V}_{c}\left(t\right)\right)- Min\left({V}_{a}\left(t\right), {V}_{b}\left(t\right),{V}_{c}\left(t\right)\right) \left(4\right)$$

E.g., U is 220V, the line voltage corresponding to it is 380V, and the peak of V_in is 540V. Figure 2 shows the voltage waveforms before and after full-wave rectification.

The right box in Fig. 1 shows a linear multi-string LED driving circuit, which divides the high turn-on voltage of the LED string into the low turn-on voltage of each LED sub-string to reduce power loss and achieve high efficiency. In this circuit, the current regulator can be equivalent to n controllable constant current sources I_s[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n). The ends of n LED sub-strings are connected individually with I_s[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n), which are parallel with each other, sharing the negative electrode in the loop. The current of I_s[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) is given by I_[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n). And the total voltage drop of the first k LED sub-strings is marked as V_f[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n). By analogy, the saturation voltages of the current regulator in the n branches can be represented independently by V_sat[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n).

Figure 3 illustrates the specific operation of this circuit, which can be described as follows: the n constant current sources are turned on or off in sequence with the ripple of V_in. If V_f[k−1] + V_sat[k−1] ≤ V_in < V_f[k] + V_sat[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n), I_s[k−1] (k = 1, 2, …, n) will be turned on sequentially, and other constant current sources will be turned off; if V_in ≥ V_fn + V_satn, I_sn will be turned on and if V_in < V_fn + V_satn, I_sn will be turned off. It is similar to the linear multi-string LED driving principle for single-phase AC power in Reference¹².

In summary, the level of V_in determines the number of lighted LED sub-strings, which is less at low V_in but grows as V_in increases. And the proportion of on-time for each sub-string depends on V_f[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n).

In this section, the multi-string LED power P_LED and drive efficiency η were calculated to optimize the distribution of LEDs in sub-strings by adjusting V_f[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n). And the product of P_LED and η was proposed as an optimization parameter to balance high P_LED and high η.

To illustrate the calculation process more clearly, this paper shows specific calculation examples with 380V line voltage. With linear LED driving schemes, one of the critical issues is the voltage fluctuation in power grids, which significantly impacts P_LED and η. In this paper, the input voltage V_in was considered within a tolerance of ± 10%. For 380V ± 10% line voltage, the corresponding V_in range is 420 ~ 593V, as shown in Fig. 4 (a).

A. LED Power and Driving Efficiency

For simplifying the calculation, suppose that the input constant current I_in = I_[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) = I₀ and V_sat[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) = 0V (as V_sat[k] is much smaller than V_f[k], which can be ignored). To achieve the maximum driving efficiency and the lowest flicker, the optimum V_f1 should be set at as same as the minimum V_in, so that the first LED sub-string operates continuously without being affected by V_in ripple, i.e., the input current is constant at I₀, as shown in Fig. 4 (b). Then the input power P_in can be calculated by Eq. (5)

$${P}_{in}= \frac{{\int }_{t=0}^{t=T}{I}_{0} {V}_{in}\left(t\right) dt}{T} \left(5\right)$$

Where T is the period of V_in, equal to 1/6 of the fundamental period of three-phase AC voltage.

Considering the symmetry of the V_in waveform in period, LED power P_LED is Eq. (6)

$${P}_{LED}=\frac{2\sum _{1}^{n}\left({\int }_{{t=t}_{n}}^{{t=t}_{n+1}}{I}_{0}{V}_{fn} dt\right)-{\int }_{t={t}_{n}}^{t={t}_{n+1}}{I}_{0} {V}_{fn} dt}{T} \left(6\right)$$

Where t_[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) is the time when V_in(t) = V_f[k] + V_sat[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) independently, which is also the time when I_s[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) is turned on in sequence, and t_n+1 is the time when I_sn is turned off.

Driving efficiency η is defined as Eq. (7)

$$\eta = \frac{{P}_{LED}}{{P}_{in}} \left(7\right)$$

η equals the ratio of the area under the stepped line representing V_f[k] (k = 1, 2, …, n) to the area under the arc line representing V_in in Fig. 4 (b). It is observed that the larger the number of LED sub-strings, the closer the ratio is to 1.

However, the number of LED sub-strings can’t be as large as possible in practice. On the one hand, the multi-string LED structure reduces the utilization ratio of LEDs, which increases the material cost of lamps; on the other hand, each MOSFET connected to the LED sub-string must be capable of withstanding high voltage, so each port needs to use a high-voltage MOS device. Multiple high-voltage MOS devices will increase the size and cost of the current regulator chip. Therefore, there is a trade-off between the total luminous flux of LEDs and the cost of multi-string LED schemes in lighting applications. This section only shows the optimization results and analysis of the double-string and triple-string LED schemes obtained by the formulas (5), (6), and (7) for reference.

B. Optimization for Double-string LED

In the double-string LED driving scheme, V_f1 is set to 420V, i.e., the minimum value of V_in, to ensure that the first LED sub-string can be lit all the time. V_f2 is set to 420 ~ 564V. I₀ is set to 40mA to be consistent with the experiment.

Figure 5 (a) shows P_LED of the double-string LED with different V_f2. At V_f2 = V_f1 = 420V, it is equivalent to a single-string LED in the circuit, and there is almost no change in P_LED as the line voltage increases. At 420V < V_f2 < 492V, P_LED increases with the increase of line voltage. At V_f2 ≥ 492V, a breakpoint can be seen in P_LED, and it shifts to the right as V_f2 increases. At this breakpoint, V_f2 equals Max(V_in). That means that when V_f1 ≤ Max(V_in) < V_f2, only the first LED sub-string operates and P_LED keeps constant; when Max(V_in) ≥ V_f2, the second LED sub-string starts to operate and P_LED increases with the increase of V_in.

Figure 5 (b) shows η of the double-string LED with different V_f2. At 420V ≤ V_f2 < 492V, η gradually decreases with the increase of line voltage. Similar to the trend of P_LED, the breakpoint also appears at V_f2 ≥ 492V. Overall, P_LED and η are obviously impacted by line voltage fluctuations. P_LED remains stable with the decrease of η at small V_f2, while P_LED fluctuates significantly with the increase of η at high V_f2. Therefore, it is difficult to select V_f2 intuitively.

Taking the balance of P_LED and η into account, the maximum average value of P_LED ⅹ η within ± 10% voltage fluctuations was selected as a candidate for optimizing V_f2. The optimization goal G in the double-string scheme can be expressed as Eq. (8)

$$G = \frac{{\int }_{ {(1-10\%)*U}_{0}}^{(1+10\%)* {U}_{0}}{P}_{LED} \left({V}_{f2} , U\right) \eta \left({V}_{f2} , U\right)dU }{{\int }_{ (1-10\%)* {U}_{0}}^{ (1+10\%)* {U}_{0}} dU} \left(8\right)$$

Where U is the input voltage V_in, U₀ is the rated line voltage within ± 10% tolerance.

G rises firstly and then falls as the line voltage increases, exhibiting a parabolic-like trend in Fig. 5 (c). Within ± 10% voltage fluctuations, the maximum of G is achieved at optimal V_f2 = 492V, and the corresponding η is 87% (@420V line voltage) ~ 95% (@365V line voltage).

C. Optimization for Triple-string LED

Similarly, in the triple-string LED driving scheme, V_f1 is set to 420V and I₀ is 40mA. V_f3 is set to 420 ~ 564V. V_f2 satisfies V_f1 < V_f2 < V_f3, and the optimal V_f2 is calculated after its corresponding V_f3 is determined.

The optimization goal G in the triple-string LED scheme is

$$G = \frac{{\int }_{ {(1-10\%)*U}_{0}}^{(1+10\%)* {U}_{0}}{P}_{LED} \left({V}_{f2} , {V}_{f3} , U\right) \eta \left({V}_{f2} , {V}_{f3} , U\right)dU }{{\int }_{ (1-10\%)* {U}_{0}}^{ (1+10\%)* {U}_{0}} dU} \left(9\right)$$

Figure 6 (a) shows the three-dimensional surface of G with different V_f2 and V_f3. The maximum G is calculated at V_f2 = 477V and V_f3 = 522V. In the case of determining V_f3, the optimal V_f2 corresponding to the maximum G is shown in the insets of Fig. 6 (b) and (c). The value of V_f2 increases non-linearly with the increase of V_f3.

Figure 6 (b) and (c) show P_LED and η of the triple-string LED calculated with optimal V_f2 and different V_f3, respectively. The trends of P_LED and η in the triple-string scheme are analogous to those in the double-string scheme. The difference is that two breakpoints appear in P_LED and η at V_f3 ≥ 564V, which is relevant to the operating principle of the linear multi-string LED driving circuit mentioned in section Ⅱ. Under optimal conditions of V_f2 = 477V and V_f3 = 522V, and the corresponding η is 93% (@420V line voltage) ~ 96% (@387V line voltage).

Comparing the single-string, double-string, and triple-string LED driving schemes, it can be seen that η increases with the number of LED sub-strings.

A double-string LED lighting system linearly driven by three-phase power was constructed as a module prototype and tested for driving efficiency, harmonic current, and flicker, as shown in Fig. 7. 29 LED lamps were mounted in the printed circuit board (PCB). The forward voltage of each LED lamp used in the experiment is 18V. For continuous operation of the first LED sub-string to alleviate flicker, the number of LED lamps in the first sub-string was chosen to be 23, corresponding to V_f1 = 414V, a little lower than the minimum input voltage of 420V. The LED linear constant current regulator IC chip with dual-channel, named SM2186E provided by Shenzhen Sunmoon Microelectronics Co., LTD¹³, was used to control the turn-on and turn-off of the double-string LED with a constant current of 40mA.

Three points should be noted:

1. The purpose of this paper is to show the advantages of linear LED driving for three-phase AC power grids, so it is fair to use an available current regulator in the market to carry out the experiment.

2. The cost of all the components, including 6 diodes, 1 regulator and 1 resistor, is approximately $0.1.

3. The parallel connection of several such modules provides the ability to assemble high-power lighting equipment while maintaining high η and high PF.

At 380V ± 10% line voltage, the first LED sub-string with 23 LED lamps is in continuous operate mode, while the second LED sub-string with 1 ~ 6 LED lamps is in discontinuous operate mode. Specifically, the distribution of LED lamps in both sub-strings and their corresponding V_f[k] (k = 1, 2) can be seen in Table I.

TABLE I

The Distribution of LED Lamps in Sub-strings.

Total number of LED lamps (pcs)	LED counts in 1st sub-string: 2nd sub-string	Vf1 [V]	Vf2 [V]
23	23:0	414	\
24	23:1	414	432
25	23:2	414	450
26	23:3	414	468
27	23:4	414	486
28	23:5	414	504
29	23:6	414	522

In this experiment, the results of P_LED and η in the double-string LED were obtained by Keysight DSOX3024T oscilloscope. The results of harmonic, PF and total harmonic distortion (THD) were tested by PF9830 digital power meter (Hangzhou Everfine Phtoto-E-Info Co., LTD). The flicker results were tested by a portable flicker-meter “Light master” (Opple Lighting Co., LTD). And the Light master was placed ~ 0.5m above the central position of the light board to receive the flicker signal.

A. LED Power and Driving Efficiency

Figure 8 (a) and (b) show the experimental results of P _LED and η under 380V ± 10% line voltage, respectively. The experimental results are essentially consistent with the calculations. P _LED of the module prototype is 16 ~ 22W, corresponding to an extremely low driving cost of $0.005/W. At 380V line voltage, both P _LED and η increase firstly and then decrease with the increase of the total number of LED lamps, and the maximum η (~ 94%) is achieved when there are 23 LED lamps in the first sub-string and 4 LED lamps in the second sub-string.

Figure 8 (c) shows G of the module prototype. The maximum G is obtained when the total number of LED lamps is 27 (23:4), and its corresponding V_f1 = 414V and V_f2 = 486V are closest to the calculation results.

Figure 8 (d) shows the driving current of the module prototype with a total number of 27 LEDs at different line voltages. The driving current is measured to be 40mA ± 4% within ± 10% voltage fluctuations.

B. PF and THD

Figure 9 (a) shows the voltage waveform v(t) and current waveform i(t) of each AC phase in the linear multi-string LED driving scheme. Based on the voltage waveform v(t) and current waveform i(t), PF is calculated by its definition to be 0.955. And THD is calculated as 31% by the Fourier series on current waveform i(t)¹⁴.

Figure 9 (b) shows the PF and THD of the module prototype with a total number of 27 LEDs under 380V ± 10% line voltage. It can be seen that PF is maintained near 0.952 and THD is about 31%, meeting the requirement of ENERGY STAR¹⁵. The experimental results agree with the theoretical calculations in Fig. 9 (a).

C. Harmonic

Three-phase LED driving falls into the regulation for IEC 61000-3-2 Class A due to it being balanced three-phase equipment¹⁶. The result indicates that only the (6k ± 1)-th (k = 1, 2, …) harmonic currents exist and all harmonic currents at 20W LED power fully satisfy the requirements of Class A. Figure 10 (a) shows the harmonic currents of 66 module prototypes connected in parallel in single equipment with a power of ~ 1320W, its corresponding harmonic currents still meet the Class A requirements.

On the other side, LEDs are also lighting equipment, limited by the most restrictive regulation for IEC 61000-3-2 Class C¹⁶. Figure 10 (b) shows the corresponding harmonic currents expressed as a percentage of the fundamental current under 380V ± 10% line voltage. The harmonic currents at 20W LED power also meet the requirements of Class C, for that when the rated power < 25W, Class C only limits the 5th, 7th, and 11th harmonic currents, and doesn’t limit other harmonics.

However, when the rated power > 25W, e.g., 66 module prototypes paralleled in single equipment, its 5th ~ 37th harmonic current will exceed the Class C requirement. For this case, an optimal solution can be taken into consideration, in which a centralized high-power three-phase full-wave rectifier is used to produce pulsating-DC power. As shown in Fig. 11, many pieces of lighting equipment are installed along electric lines. Both lines flow constant current, there are no electromagnetic interference (EMI) problems along these lines. And the hybrid active power filter (HAPF) is assembled for centralized harmonic suppression in the busbar¹⁷. Compared with the common solution that each LED driving topology includes electromagnetic compatibility, rectification, power factor correction, filtering, inverter step-down, voltage stabilization, etc., this optimal solution with fewer driving components and higher reliability is more suitable for road and tunnel lighting projects with harsh environmental conditions. In the future, when the safety of three phase AC power is understood by the public, this optimal solution is possible to be adopted for general lighting.

D. Flicker

To limit flicker harmful effects, such as headaches, migraines, fatigue, epilepsy, or any other neurological response¹⁸, IEEE standard 1789–2015 is recommended for evaluating flicker in general illumination. Flicker, also described as modulation (%), is relevant to the ripple of the luminance waveform. Following its definition in Reference¹⁹, the theoretical modulation can be calculated. For the optimized LED sub-strings (23:4), the maximum luminance equals to the luminance sum of 27 LED lamps, the minimum luminance equals to the luminance sum of 23 LED lamps. Therefore, the estimated maximum modulation is 8% at 300Hz.

Figure 12 shows the measured modulation of 27 LED lamps under 380V ± 10% line voltage and assesses the modulation results according to the most restrictive practice 2 in IEEE standard 1789–2015. It is obvious that all results are within the recommended region. The maximum modulation was measured to be about 8% at 380V line voltage, consistent with expectation.

The paper investigates the high-voltage linear multi-string LED driving scheme for three-phase AC power grids. It combines a three-phase full-wave rectification circuit with a linear multi-string LED driving circuit. A double-string LED lighting system linearly driven by three-phase power was constructed as a module prototype to verify its superiority and practicality. The experimental results show high η, high PF, and flicker-free. Further, the calculation results demonstrate that η can be improved with the optimization of LED distributions and the increase of the number of LED sub-strings. This scheme, which covers excellent driving performance, high reliability, and low cost, shows great competitiveness for general lighting in the future, especially in public and industrial lighting applications.

This is just an initial step towards high-voltage linear LED driving for three-phase AC grids. People may find there are many research works that need to be fulfilled, such as the current regulator IC should be redesigned to keep constant power driven by three-phase power; fresh LED lighting sources should be developed to avoid the perspective luminance changes of high-end LED strings when input voltage fluctuates; and customized smart/wireless controllers powered by pulsating-DC voltage are needed to intelligently adjust the brightness of the LED lamps, etc.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Key Laboratory of Nanodevices and Applications, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, CAS.

Author information

Affiliations

School of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China

Xiu Zhang & Yong Cai

Key Laboratory of Nanodevices and Applications, Suzhou Institute of Nano-Tech and Nano-Bionics, CAS, Suzhou 215123, China

Xiu Zhang & Yong Cai

Ningbo SkyTorch Optoelectronics Technology Co., Ltd., Ningbo 315301, China

Baoxing Wang & Shuqi Li

Contributions

X.Z. conceived and designed the study. B.W., S.L., and Y.C. were involved in the data analysis. X.Z. wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors have reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yong Cai.

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Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Data Availability: The primary data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

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No competing interests reported.

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High-voltage Linear LED Driving for Three-phase AC Power Grids: A Competitive Scheme for General Lighting

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I. Introduction

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