The physiochemical analysis done in this study will allow the interrelation and assessment of the various naturogenic and anthropogenic factors affecting the reservoir. To start with, the pH values varied in the range of m 6.6 to7.6 (Fig. 6). These valued are all within the acceptable limit referred by LIBNOR (PH between 6.5 and 8.5).
As for the electrical conductivity( EC) known for the measurement of the capacity of the water to carry electric current. The higher the EC is the more ions are available in the water[Hajjar, 1997] and the higher the TDS will be, [Gaetke and Chow, 2003; Divya and Belagali, 2012]. The EC results of selected samples were between 659 and 668µS/cm (Fig. 7). No measured values exceeded the limit specified by LIBNOR (1500µS/cm) [Nehme, 2014].
To correlate it was seen that the TDS values also did nor exceed the limit specified by LIBNOR (500ppm) as seen in Fig. 8.
As for the chemical characterization, the concentrations of the anions and cations gave a clear idea about possible sources of contamination if available. To start with, the concentration of calcium in the various samples varied between 100 and 122 mg/L (Fig. 9). The highest concentration value was observed at source SD (122 mg/L), but it was still below the LIBNOR limit (equal to 200mg/L (Nehme, 2014).
As for the copper concentrations, it is well known that water typically offers only about 10% of the daily copper requirement. The results in the sampling campaign indicated a range ofconcentrations of copper between 0.15 and 6 mg/L (Fig. 10). All samples were seen to be below the acceptable limit set by LIBNOR ( 1mg/L). in the expectation of one sample location SA that highlighted a concentration of 6 mg/L As copper has negative health consequences such as diarrheas and poisoning effects, this research had to characterize the point source of contamination. By assessing and characterizing the site location it was seen that agricultural activities were developed all around the site thus hindering the uncontrolled use and application of fungicides and algicides is leadinf to the increase in the copper concentrations in S6.
Moreover, the uncontrolled domestic discharge of garbage and sewage water was also observed at this site also contributed in the copper increase in concentrations. From a toxicity point of view, a concentration of less than or equal to 0.1 mg/l inhibits the growth of aquatic plants.
As for Iron concentrations, it was observed that sourceshad values higher than the LIBNOR limit (0.3 mg/L) as shown in Fig. 11. However, a low iron level is not harmful to health, furthermore, excessive iron levels in water generate an overload, which can lead to diabetes, hemochromatosis, stomach troubles, and nausea, cause liver, pancreatic, and cardiac problems..
The concentration of iron (Fe) may be affected by a point source of iron pollution. Generally, iron is found in surface waters as salts containing Fe3+ when PH is above 7. Most of these salts are insoluble and are either precipitated or absorbed on different surfaces. The presence of iron in natural water supplies is due to rock and mineral decomposition, acidic mine drainage, uncontrolled landfill leaching, sewage effluents, and releases from iron processing industrial sectors.
The concentrations of magnesium in the five sources ranged between 20.4 and 24.5 mg/L. The highest concentration is observed at source SF-1 (Fig. 12), but it is still under the LIBNOR limit (50 mg/L) (Nehme, 2014). This high value may be due to swept down from the rocks and eventually ends up in the lakes.
When analyzing the lead concentrations, four locations did not depict a value while source SF-1a value equal to 0.26 mg/L. This value is considered above the LIBNOR limit (0.1 mg/L) (Nehme, 2014). The presence is due to industrial, domestic and/or agricultural inputs. However, the water remains favorable for irrigation The corrosion process in the plumbing systems of old houses or water networks can increase the dissolution of lead into the water.
The concentrations of zinc in the five sources ranged between 0.73 and 1.44 mg/L (Fig. 13). The highest concentration is observed at source MS, but under the LIBNOR limit (equal to 5 mg/L (Nehme, 2014). The first effect of eutrophication is the increase in endogenous organic matter, the consumption of nitrates and phosphates by algal growth (in the upper part of the basin), and the release of trace elements (metallic trace elements) such as manganese, zinc, and iron when algae were degenerated and transformed into detritus in water.
The presence of bromate in drinking water may be associated with the reaction between bromide naturally present in drinking water and ozone. Even though, all the obtained values were under the LIBNOR limit (equal to 0.2 mg/L (Nehme, 2014).Eye inflammation was seen within the first 30 minutes of exposure at a bromine concentration of 0.1 mg/L. Specific nose, eye, and throat discomfort occurred at doses of 0.2 mg/L and higher, with a fast-rising concentration response. The samples taken from SF-1 and MS were free of brome, while it was found in the other three samples with a concentration between 0.052 and 0.055 mg/L (Fig. 14). The reduction of natural bromate to bromide ion may occur in waters with low oxygen concentrations.
When determining the concentration of chlorine in water, it was seen in Fig. 15 that all the tested sample values exceeded the chlorine limits recommended. Chlorine is highly mobile in soils and waters where it is present primarily as Cl−. It is related to anthropogenic origins. Discharges of both domestic and animal wastes contribute to the pollution of the water in chlorine.
Fish, reptiles, and amphibians are all poisoned by chlorine. These types of animals, unlike humans and most domesticated animals, absorb water straight into the bloodstream. Drinking or using water having small concentrations of chloramine does not have negative health consequences, on the contrary it protects against waterborne illness epidemics. A reasonable amount of disinfection for drinking water can range from 1.0 to 4.0 mg/L.
As for Fluoride, the LIBNOR standard has set a maximum limit level in potable water of 1 mg/L. Exposure to levels greater than this can result in skeletal fluorosis, a disorder in which fluoride accumulates in the bones. All the tested samples values were below the fluoride limits recommended by the LIBNOR (Fig. 16).
In the five sources, the concentration of nitrites did not exceed the LIBNOR limit of 1mg/L as shown in Fig. 17 (Nehme, 2014).
However, the Nitrate concentrations are observed in Fig. 18 exceeded the LIBNOR limit of 10mg/L. The high values are due to the excessive use of domestic waste and uncontrolled domestic waste spilled near the reservoirs and most importantly the untreated sewage disposed in the area. The nitrate concentrations can be harmful to newborns than nitrite since their bodies react differently to it.
Last but not least, the Sulfate concentrations determined in the five locations ranged from 9.717 to 17.901 mg/L, with the maximum amounts recorded in sources SF-1 and SF-2: 17.901 and 17.6 mg/L, respectively (Fig. 19). However, all sulfate concentrations results were under the LIBNOR maximum permissible level (250 mg/L) (Nehme, 2014). The stratification of sulfates in the basin is certainly related to the worst habits biologically and hydrodynamic in the water basin. It is derived from anthropogenic origins and activities. As the chlorine, both domestic and animal waste contribute to the pollution of the water basin in SO4−.
As for the microbiological characterization ,The overall analysis summarized in the table below confirmed that the major sources of Ras El-Ain, exceeded the limit recommended by LIBNOR (20 CFU/1ml, and 0 CFU/1ml respectively for Total Coliform and E.Coli and Salmonella). For source SF-2, it was noticed that the -the total Coliform does not exist. Whereas, for the other three sources, their numbers are higher than the limit authorized by LIBNOR. However, these tests showed no signs neither of Salmonella in any of the sources.
Table 2
Microbiology Test Results after 4 days.
ID
|
Total Coliforms
Limit 20 CFU/ml
|
E. Coli
Limit 0 CFU/ml
|
Salmonella
Limit 0 CFU/ml
|
SF-1
|
˃ 50
|
36 E coli
|
-
|
SF-2
|
˃ 50
|
-
|
-
|
SD
|
˃ 50
|
86 E coli
|
-
|
SA
|
˃ 50
|
8 E coli
|
-
|
MS
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
Therefore, the water from these sources is not suitable for drinking water, a treatment method should be considered, and it is all contaminated and polluted by bacteria.
When the physiochemical parameters are all coupled together, an interpellation can be outreached. In this study, Piper, STABLER, and Schöeller Berkaloff diagrams are constructed to evaluate the variation in hydrochemical facies of water samples (Figs. 20-21-22). The tendency of the cations for the raw water samples is to: Ca2 Mg2+> Na+ > K+>So4 + > HCO3 + CO3 + NO3. As shown in Fig. 20, calcium is the dominant cation in all water samples. The tendency, of the anions, is to Cl- > alkalinity, and the dominant anion is chloride [Saba et al., 2019]. The hydrochemical facies/ water types are the same (sodium chloride type) and influenced only by the geochemistry of the groundwater. The Piper diagram also shows that sulfate (60%) and chloride (90%) are the most dominant ions without the presence of magnesium anion in all water samples. The Schöeller Berkaloff diagram highlights very similar trends between the studied water samples, in particular with different sulfate concentrations on the five water samples, confirming the results obtained by using Piper and STABLER diagrams [Saba et al., 2019].
The piper diagram in Fig. 21 indicates the ion predominance of the chemical species present, it was observed that the water in the five locations is Hyper chlorinated and sulfated. This is due to the geological formations in the area that are known to be sedimentary and predominantly affect the water. The cation content is largely dominated by Chloride and Sulfate.