The effect of wastewater on people residing around the industries
The descriptive statistics of the variables that were expected to associate with the effect of wastewater on the surrounding community were displayed in Table 2. The wastewater was found to have statistically significant (P < 0.05) mean differences in creation off-odor, mosquito, and mix with the water source and cause health risks (i.e. malaria). The non-parametric statistics showed that the creation of parasites and off-odor due to wastewater were significantly (P < 0.01) affected the human health. Whereas, the wastewater was significantly (P < 0.05) contaminates the water source that used for drinking purpose. In a study conducted in the Assalaya, water related disease (i.e. vomiting, diarrhea and allergic) were observed among the community used the surplus irrigation canals that affect by the factory effluences (Ahmed, et al., 2017). This might be due to the lack of health awareness of the villages around the sugar industries. It might be also because of the fact that most of the sugar industries in the country are located nearby Nile that increases the chances of water source contamination. This went with the findings of Hind (2015) who concluded the simple undeveloped life style of the communities living around the industry, that may have endangered their health. It also concurs with Elhag (2010) who indicated that the lack of awareness of the impact of pollution is one of the problems facing the sugar industry in Sudan.
Moreover, the respondents’ complaints were found to have significant (P < 0.05) mean differences in off-odor, mosquito and health risk caused by the wastewater as it showed in Table 2. The surrounding communities are suffering from pollutants which may have harmed the health. The main reason behind this might be due to the insufficient treatment of sugar industrial effluents. This concurs with the findings of (Mohamed, et al., 2017, Alnail, et al., 2013; Pradeep and Omprakash, 2017). The studies were indicated that the pollution of waterbodies was due to the sugar industry waste disposals when discharged without treatment. Hence, that could lead to affect the water quality and the ecology system. Oboody, 2016 and Alnail, et al., 2013 were also observed the creation of the insects, parasites and off-odors in the stagnated wastewater of the sugar industries. However, the authorities in the country should find effective means for sugar industry wastewater treatment.
Impact of wastewater on animal production
Some of the respondents 134 (43%) enrolled in activities such as animal and crop production. The water sources used are cane irrigation drainage canals, wastewater streams, Nile, water tanks, Wells, Lakes and cane irrigation canals. The wastewater was used by 3.1% with compare to another available water source. The water source was found to have statistically significant (P < 0.05) mean differences in animal production. health sickness symptoms on some animals were observed. Also, animal death cases were funded as 90 (30%) of 205 of the respondents stated that as it showed in Table 2. In a study conducted in Pakistan, animals suffered different diseases and, in some cases, death was recorded due to consumption of sugar industry effluents discharged in to drains nearness of the villages (Qureshi, et al., 2015). The descriptive statistics revealed that the wastewater was have significant (P < 0.05) mean differences in animal production. The non-parametric statistics showed the significant (P < 0.05) effect of wastewater to the animal health with compare to other water sources (i.e. cane irrigation cannal). On the other hand, chemicals that included in the wastewater might have health risks for the animals. This concurs with other researchers who analyzed the wastewater resulted from the sugar industry locally and globally and found that the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was extremely high resulting contamination to the water (Reddy, et al., 2014; Oboody, 2016; Asmah, 2017). It also went with (Mohamed, et al., 2017) findings, who concluded that the wastewater from the Assalaya sugar factory caused a threat to the agricultural environment and the superiority of animals.
Impact of wastewater on crop production
Crops like vegetables, cereals and fruits were planted in small scale farms (0.4 ha). Vegetables were the main cultivated crop (69%), with compare to the others by 28% and 3% for cereals and fruit trees, respectively. Of the total 177 respondents, 44 (25%) were used the wastewater for crop irrigation without pretreatments, whereas, 133 (75%) were used sedimentation pans. The wastewater pre-treatment (i.e. sedimentation pan) was found to have statistically significant (P < 0.01) mean differences in crop production. Whereas, the non-parametric statistics revealed insignificant difference (P > 0.05) in the effect of using pre-treated wastewater for crop irrigation on human health with compare to the nontreated wastewater. There could be many reasons of utilization the waste water for crop irrigation; firstly, it may due to the proximity of the streams from to the fields. Secondly, it could also might be due to the lack of availability of alternative water source for irrigation. This concurs with (Saranraj and Stella, 2014) who were concluded that the sugar mill effluent was used for plant irrigation in India due to the lack of water sources. On the other hand, there is a consensus that wastewater is enriched with the nutrient elements. The present finding showed that the health risk is non-considered aspect among the producers. However, the wastewater was found to have significant (P < 0.05) mean differences in causing risks to crop. Consumption vegetables that irrigated with untreated wastewater was found significantly (P < 0.01) increased the susceptibility of infection with disease (i.e. stomach ache and diarrhea). In a study conducted by Aisha (2007), the uncertainty of healthy consume of crop irrigated with sugar manufacture effluent was concluded. However, sugar manufacture effluent could be used for crop irrigation in a very restricted condition, when appropriate dilution took place (Vinod, 2014). The risks might be due to the accumulated chemicals such as heavy metals that consequently affected the human health. This goes with the same line of researchers (Vinod, 2014; Reddy, et al., 2014; Sahu, 2015, Alnail, et al., 2013) who indicated that the untreated sugar industry effluents were found to have a significant proportion of chemicals that contaminate land, water, crop and air. Thus, it may have led to negatively effect on water quality for drinking and irrigation purposes. Another a study conducted in India, occurrence of human health risk due to the long-term usage of contaminated sugarcane irrigated with industrial effluents, were observed in rural areas (Bhawna, et al., 2016).
Table 2
Descriptive statistics of the variables illustrating the environmental impact of sugar wastes
Variables | N | Agree (%) | Disagree (%) | Neutral (%) | Mean | S.D. | S.E. | Sig. |
Wastewater creates off-odor | 311 | 196 (63) | 87 (28) | 28 (9) | 1.43 | .628 | .036 | .000 |
Wastewater creates mosquito | 311 | 209 (67.2) | 77 (24.8) | 25 (8) | 1.40 | .608 | .035 | .000 |
Wastewater contaminates water | 311 | 121 (38.9) | 160 (51.4) | 30 (9.6) | 1.44 | .634 | .036 | .000 |
*People health (malaria) | 311 | 206 (66.2) | 70 (22.5) | 35 (11.3) | 1.45 | .689 | .039 | .000 |
Particulates contaminate the air | 305 | 260 (83.6) | 34 (10.9) | 11 (3.5) | 1.18 | .47 | .027 | .000 |
Particulates dirt the flours and clothes | 305 | 278 (89.4) | 21 (6.8) | 6 (1.9) | 1.11 | .369 | .021 | .000 |
Invisibility due to smoke clouds | 305 | 236 (75.9) | 49 (15.8) | 20 (6.4) | 1.29 | .582 | .033 | .000 |
Loud-sounds | 305 | 204 (65.6) | 70 (22.5) | 31 (10) | 1.43 | .671 | .038 | .000 |
| N | Stomach ache (%) | Vomiting (%) | Diarrhea (%) | Other (%) | Mean | S.D. | S.E. | Sig. |
*Health risks to human | 108 | 38 (12.2) | 3 (1) | 54 (17.4) | 13 (4.2) | 2.39 | 1.09 | .105 | .000 |
* Infection: | N | Male (%) | Female (%) | Mean | S.D. | S.E. | Sig. |
Eye disease | 125 | 82 (26.4) | 43 (13.8) | 1.34 | .477 | .043 | .000 |
Heart attach | 10 | 6 (1.9) | 4 (1.3) | 1.40 | .516 | .163 | .527 |
Respiratory disease | 62 | 40 (12.9) | 22 (7.1) | 1.35 | .482 | .061 | .022 |
Asthma | 40 | 30 (9.6) | 10 (3.2) | 1.25 | .439 | .069 | .002 |
Chronic bronchitis | 65 | 42 (13.5) | 23 (7.4) | 1.35 | .482 | .060 | .018 |
Irregular heartbeat | 18 | 13 (4.2) | 5 (1.6) | 1.28 | .461 | .109 | .059 |
| N | Yes (%) | No (%) | Mean | S.D. | S.E. | Sig. |
*Diseases to animals | 204 | 90 (28.9) | 114 (36.7) | 1.56 | .498 | .035 | .093 |
* Animal Death cases | 205 | 94 (30.2) | 111 (35.7) | 1.54 | .499 | .035 | .235 |
*Risk to crop | 206 | 124 (39.9) | 82 (26.4) | 1.40 | .491 | .034 | .003 |
Variables | N | High (%) | Medium (%) | Low (%) | No (%) | Mean | S. D. | S.E. | Sig. |
Off-odor | 309 | 137 (44.1) | 60 (19.3) | 42 (13.5) | 70 (22.5) | 2.15 | 1.212 | .069 | .000 |
Mosquito | 309 | 194 (62.4) | 61 (19.6) | 36 (11.6) | 18 (5.8) | 1.61 | .908 | .052 | .000 |
Fly | 309 | 148 (47.6) | 83 (26.7) | 48 (15.4) | 30 (9.6) | 1.87 | 1.005 | .057 | .000 |
Cane burning particles | 309 | 193 (62.1) | 74 (23.8) | 29 (9.3) | 13 (4.2) | 1.55 | .830 | .047 | .000 |
Bagasse particles | 309 | 155 (49.8) | 67 (21.5) | 46 (14.8) | 41 (13.2) | 1.91 | 1.085 | .062 | .000 |
* Dependent variables |
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Impact of pollutants on community around the industries
Sugar industries in Sudan were found releasing huge quantities of pollutants (i.e. organic particles, noises and smoke clouds) during the processing operation. People were suffered from the massively spreading of organic pollutants and particles as it showed in Fig. 5. The descriptive statistics showed that the pollutants were significantly (P < 0.01) contaminated the air and polluted clothes and floors of the community surrounding the sugar industries. The nonparametric statistics revealed that the respondents were significantly (P < 0.05) suffered from the suspending particles resulted from cane and bagasse burning. This could be because of the lack of pollution measures for the sugar industry sector in the country. It was reported (TIFAC, 2019) that the air pollution control equipment installation is the governor for pollutants (i.e. ash) fully escape into the atmosphere through the chimney. The loud sounds due to the operations taking place over the sugar processing season, was found significantly (P < 0.05) affected the people living in the vicinity villages Table 2. This might be due to the proximity of the factories (i.e. one km in average) to the villages. Moreover, it was observed that pollutants were massively released from the chimneys of the sugar factories. The nonparametric statistics declared that the factories depreciation and old practices approaches in the sugar industries in Sudan were significantly (P < 0.01) increased the sufferings of the vicinity villages from the off-odor and parasites (i.e. mosquitoes and fly). This concurs with engineers (Yosuf, 2017 and Yassir 2017) who stated that the publicly owned factories in the country were depreciated and found to have no updated technology which may have affected the surrounding environment. It also went with the same line of TIFAC (2019), the report stated a reduction in visibility in the surrounding areas of the sugar mill because of massive release of pollutants into the air. The present findings indicated that there were more aspects (i.e. noise pollution) that affected the community in the factories surrounding areas. However, the effect of pollutants resulted from sugar manufacture are inevitable (Wada, et al., 2017), but it could be minimized. For instant, villages should be kept far away from the industries areas. Also, the authorities must embark in a rehabilitation program with improve the performance of industries chimneys so as to reduce the effects of emission.
Figure 5
Health effects of pollutants on the community around the industries
The responses to the health questions were relatively low with compare to the targeted population. Out of total of 311, 151 (48%) of the respondents were dealt with the questions related to the health issue. This might be firstly due to the sensitivity of the issue which is rarely irritated in this particular society to avoid conflicts with the authorities. Secondly, it might be because of the lack of the health awareness among the community around the industries. This concurs with Hind (2015) how stated the simplicity of the community around one of the sugar in factories in the country (i.e. the Kenana). Accordingly, this might made people reluctant to respond to questions deal with both environment and health issues. However, the authorities should take effective tools to deal with this issue in a transparent manner in order to develop a viable solution towards mitigate the health risks which might cause by the industry pollutants.
The pollutants were caused diseases such as eye allergy and infection, chronic bronchitis, respiratory system infections, asthmas, irregular heartbeat and heart attacks to 125 (82.7%), 65 (43%), 62 (41%), 40 (26.5%), 18 (12%) and 10 (6.6%) of the respondents, respectively (Fig. 6). Eye diseases (i.e. allergy and infection) were found to have a high significant (P < 0.01) mean difference in community health. Also, respiratory diseases (i.e. asthma and chronic bronchitis) were found to have significant (P < 0.05) mean differences widespread midst the residences Table 2. Paula, et al. (2017) found that people who residing close to the cane burning area in Brazil were significantly susceptible to cardiovascular morbidity. The study was estimated the effect of exposure to air pollutants on people in one disease (i.e. cardiovascular), as an evidence for the health risk due to sugar manufacture pollutants. The present findings revealed that the impact of the sugar manufacture pollutants on human health could cause wide range of diseases for those who are living around the industries. It is reportedly (Qureshi, 2015) that wastes discharged by sugar mills in Pakistan were found to cause asthma and various skin diseases. In a study conducted in India, dizziness and physiological effects such as irritation in the eye, nose, throat and lungs were recorded on people living in the surrounding areas of the sugar mills (TIFAC, 2019).
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Industry participations to the community
The sugar industries in Sudan were found providing services (i.e. hospitals accessibility, medical aid, availability of qualified staff and scheduled prevention rotations) to the community. The hospitals were found to have a statistically significant (P < 0.05) mean difference in closeness to the villages. The availability of doctors and medical team in the hospitals were significantly (P < 0.01) affecting people satisfaction. The regular prevention works (i.e. pesticides spray for parasites) were significant (P < 0.05) in people satisfaction (Fig. 9). In a study conducted in South Africa, there were some cases of medication shortages in the hospitals of the surrounding community. It reported that there was dissatisfaction of health services due to shortages of doctors and the required medical equipment (Takalani, 2013). This might be due to the lack of the scientific background among the society on the healthy environment. It could be also because of the authorities’ ignorance to the issue of community health and their surrounding environment. The survey results showed that there were no centers for monitoring the effect of sugar manufacture wastes on human health. This concurs with a study conducted in the Halfa sugar factory by Elhag (2010). It concluded that there was a lack of awareness from the side of sugar industry authorities toward its wastes impact on both the environment and human health.
Figure 9
Issues should be taken in consideration
It was revealed that there were serious issues threating both the environment and health of the community surrounding the selected industries. Out of 300, the majority 268 (89%) of respondents were agreed to find means for sufficient manage and protect the community from the sugar industry wastes. People responses were found to have significant (P < 0.01) mean differences in the importance of protection the community from the effluents, improving the air and water quality, enhance the waste management and the surrounding environment (Fig. 10). This might be due to the old practices that have been followed since inaugurations the majority of the sugar industries in the country. The conventional approach of the sugar production in Sudan seemed to focuses on the economic benefits rather than the environmental impact. In a study conducted by Elhag (2010), it concluded that the sugar industry in Sudan was facing problems related to the environmental aspect due to its old follows. However, the sugar industry’s authorities should undertake effective means that would have decrease the environmental impact on the community surrounding the industries. It reportedly (Günter, et al., 2007) that the sugar cane industries in Brazil must use waste reducing technologies and water cycling processes in order to protect the region’s environment and water resources.
Figure 10
Factors Influencing The Community Health
The multinomial logistic regression model was conducted to identify the main factors influencing the community health (i.e. malaria). The results of the analysis showed that the model was good fitted with the observed data set. A statistically significant improvement in fit about the model was found, where chi-square = 247.12, df = 32 and p < 0.001. The Pseudo R-Square (i.e. Cox and Snell R-squared, Nagelkerke R-squared and McFadden R-square) values, which merely mimic the R-squared value in linear regression (Pallant, 2011) were 0.55, 0.66 and 0.46, respectively. The McFadden R-Square is often reported in the researches. The McFadden R-Square value was 0.46 which indicated the good of fit to the data and supporting the quality of the model.
Eight independent variables were included in the multinomial logistic regression test to define their effect on people heath. Wastewater creates off-odor and wastewater creates mosquito were found to have significant (P < 0.05) influences on causing health risks (i.e. malaria) to the people residing around the sugar factories areas. The distance of wastewater streams from the villages, the flow season, the mix with the water source, the water source contamination, creation swamps and fly were found to be statistically insignificant (P > 0.05) predictors Table 3. The results of the analysis revealed that the untreated wastewater resulted from sugar industry in Sudan is encouraging create off-odors and parasites (i.e. mosquitoes). Hence, its critically essential in affecting the surrounding environment and people health. Many studies (Mohamed, et al, 2017; Ahmed, et al, 2017; Sahu, 2019) indicated the rationale behind the untreated sugar industry wastewater and creation of parasites (i.e. mosquitoes) that cause different diseases. However, sugar industry wastewater has major effect on the surrounding community and areas unless it well treated.
Table 3
Multinomial logistic regression model results for the effect of wastewater on the community heath
I have had malaria several times | Parameter Estimate | Standard Error | Wald | P-Value | Odd Ratio | |
| Wastewater stream is close (agree = 1) | 0.528 | 1.419 | 0.139 | 0.710 | 1.696 |
Wastewater flow all the year (agree = 1) | 1.033 | 0.956 | 1.168 | 0.280 | 2.810 |
Wastewater mix with water body (agree = 1) | 1.664 | 1.036 | 2.580 | 0.108 | 5.280 |
Wastewater contaminates waterbody (agree = 1) | 1.118 | 0.972 | 1.323 | 0.250 | 3.058 |
Wastewater creates swamps (agree = 1) | 0.085 | 0.898 | 0.009 | 0.925 | 1.089 |
Wastewater creates off-odor (agree = 1) | 0.436 | 0.869 | 0.251 | 0.616 | 1.546 |
Wastewater creates flies (agree = 1) | 1.503 | 0.713 | 4.449 | 0.035* | 4.495 |
Wastewater creates mosquitoes (agree = 1) | 2.534 | 0.813 | 9.712 | 0.002** | 12.61 |
| Constant | − 3.911 | 1.603 | 5.950 | 0.015 | 0.021 |
| Wastewater stream is close (disagree = 2) | − 1.271 | 1.499 | 0.719 | 0.397 | 0.281 |
| Wastewater flow all the year (disagree = 2) | 0.630 | 1.343 | 0.220 | 0.639 | 1.877 |
| Wastewater mix with water body (disagree = 2) | 2.074 | 1.242 | 2.790 | 0.095 | 7.956 |
| Wastewater contaminates waterbody (disagree = 2) | − 0.653 | 1.226 | 0.284 | 0.594 | 0.520 |
| Wastewater creates swamps (disagree = 2) | − 0.834 | 1.114 | 0.560 | 0.454 | 0.434 |
| Wastewater creates off-odor (disagree = 2) | 1.131 | 1.150 | 0.969 | 0.325 | 3.100 |
| Wastewater creates flies (disagree = 2) | 0.862 | 0.986 | 0.764 | 0.382 | 2.367 |
| Wastewater creates mosquitoes (disagree = 2) | 1.094 | 1.058 | 1.069 | 0.301 | 2.986 |
| Constant | − 2.799 | 1.677 | 2.786 | 0.095 | 0.061 |
*and ** Significant at P < 0.01 and P < 0.05, respectively. -2 log likelihood = 221.351; Chi-square = 247.117 and p = 0.000. Pseudo R-Square (Cox and Snell, Nagelkerke and McFadden) = 0.548, 0.669 and 0.465, respectively. |
Wastewater creates flies
The flies created by the sugar industry wastewater was found to have positive and statistically significant (P < 0.05) relation with the endangered of the community health. The wastewater creates flies appeared to have more likely to affect the health of the people surrounding the sugar factories areas. More flies created by the wastewater are more likely to fall in the agree category than in fall the disagree or natural categories. The probability of respondents agrees to the issue of health risks appeared more likely to increases by a factor of 4.5 as the level of creation flies increases by one more time. This seems to indicate that the sugar industry wastewater in Sudan is discharged without treatment that mediates the reproduction of parasites. The result is supported with the findings of studies conducted in Sudan on analysis the wastewater of the Assalaya sugar factory (Mohamed, et al, 2017; Ahmed, et al, 2017). It also went with same line of the findings of a study conducted in Ethiopia on treatment of sugar industry wastewater with ferrous material (Sahu, 2019).
Wastewater creates mosquitoes
The sugar industry wastewater was found to have positive predictor and highly significant (P < 0.01) indicator to create mosquitoes and affect the health of the surrounding community. The probability of the reproduction of mosquito in the sugar manufacture wastewater was more likely supported by the respondents than to fall in other categories (i.e. disagree and neutral). Accordingly, this means that the more increase of the wastewater the more median of diseases (i.e. mosquitoes) created. Hence, increases the probability of endangered the health of the surrounding community by a factor of 12.6. This result revealed that the sugar industry wastewater in Sudan is the main contributor to the creation of mosquitoes. This concurs with a study stated that the sugar industry untreated wastewater in Ethiopia is a source of mosquito (Sahu, 2019).
A Prospective Frame Work To Handling The Sugar Manufacture Wastes In Sudan
The community surrounding the selected sugar industries in Sudan is facing unavoidable contaminants. These contaminants could be minimized to the lowest levels by sustaining sufficient tools to manage the waste. Hence, the environmental impacts could be mitigated. Therefore, this study designed an integrated framework to conserve the bionetwork of sugar industry in the country. The framework is based on collaborative efforts from both the sugar industries and the society around to better waste management.
The concept of this framework depends on the industrial ecology which focuses on integrating and adapting technologies to sustain a better management for sugar manufacture waste (Davidson, 2011). Based on this context, the prospective industrial waste handling framework for the selected sugar industries aims to (1) maximize reuse and recycling of the waste resulting from sugar manufacture, (2) support decision makers towards achieve sustainable sugar production and (3) achieve zero waste for sugar industry in Sudan. The above-mentioned goals can be achieved by introduce new technologies to use the sugar manufacture waste as raw materials to produce ecofriendly products. For instance, wastewater treatment plant and the idea of cane green harvesting will contribute to minimize the impacts of pollution on the society around the industries. The existing practices of treating sugar by-products and waste are not environmentally friendly. The surplus bagasse, filter cake, wastewater and vinasse are improperly managed. Filter cake and bagasse ash and wastewater are produce pollutants such as suspending particles, off-odors and parasites. The pollutants are causing health risks to the human and animal in surrounding areas (Fig. 11). However, it is obviously clear that there is no collaborative work between the industries’ authorities, the environmental aspects and the social part in order to maintain a sustainable sugar industry bionetwork in Sudan.
The prospective strategy is to target specific by-products and waste to be used as raw materials to produce ecofriendly products (Fig. 12). The surplus bagasse could be used to produce papers. The wastewater could be recycled and reused. Vinasse with filter cake could be used to produce fertilizers such as potassium and phosphate (Prado et al, 2013, Nakhla, 2014 and Evgeniya, et al., 2017). Also, increase the efficiency of the on process treatment plants such as wastewater recycling program as (Oboody, 2016). Moreover, sustain effective bodies to work integrally with industrial, social and environmental sides to conserve the bionetwork of the sugar industry. Embark on create institutions responsible for implementation the extensive environment, pollution and waste management legislations. Collecting information about pollution and waste monitoring are essential for the implementation of pollution reduction measures. Sharing information is important element to create awareness about the issue of the effect of waste on human health. This framework was the first of its kind for the case of Sudanese sugar factories with the approach to steer the decision makers to reduce the environmental impact of sugar manufacture waste and pollutants. This will enable gain better understanding of the relationship between pollution, waste management and the healthy life that the surrounding community are need to live.
Figure 11
Figure 12